
FHHSKNTKD I'.Y 



/ 



96 




AXCIEXT NORMANS. — Frontispiece. 



YOUNG PEOPLE'S 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND 



BY 



GEORGE MAKEPEACE TOWLE 

AUTHOR OF " HISTORY OF HENRY V," " HEROES OF HlSTOKYj 

" MODERN GREECE," " MODERN FRANCE," " ENGLAND 

AND RUSSIA IN ASIA," "ENGLAND IN 

EGYPT," ETC., ETC. 



BOSTON 
LEE AND SHEPARD PUBLISHERS 

NEW YORK CHARLES T. DILLINGHAM 

1 88; 



Tin 



Copyright, /SS6, 
By Lee and Shepard. 



All Iti^/ils Reserved. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



Electrotyped by 
C. J. Peters & Son, Boston. 



\ 



PREFACE. 



The attempt is made, in this volume, to present clearly 
and concisely the main facts in the history of England, 
from the Roman Conquest to tlie present time. The 
author has especially had it in mind to show the growth 
of the political liberties and institutions of the English 
people ; and to indicate, in some degree, in the chapters 
entitled " Progress of the People," the changes in the 
social condition, and the advance in literature and the 
arts, of the English between one period and another. It 
has also been his earnest purpose and endeavor to relate 
events, and to describe persons, without bias or partiality; 
to avoid obtruding judgments of his own on these events 
and persons ; and to leave it to the reader to make up his 
judgment on the many disputed points in English history, 
from facts which have been accepted as true on all sides. 

G. M. T. 
Boston, February, 1886. 



iii 



CONTENTS, 



Chapter 










Page 


I. 


Ancient Britain i 


II. 


Reign of the Romans 








6 


III. 


Britain becomes England . 








12 


IV. 


The Early English Kings 








. 18 


V. 


Growth of the English Nation 








. 26 


VI. 


Progress of the People . 








• 32 


VIL 


The Danish Conquest 








. 38 


VIII. 


Canute and his Successors 








• 43 


IX. 


The End of the Saxon Dynasty 








. 4S 


X. 


The Norman Conquest 








• 54 


XL 


Progress of the People . 








. Co 


XII. 


William the Conqueror . 








. 66 


XIII. 


William Rufus, or the Red 








7- 


XIV. 


Henry the First 








• 77 


XV. 


The First Plantagenet 








• 83 


XVI. 


Henry's Reforms and Conquests 








. 90 


XVII. 


Progress of the People . 








. 96 


XVIII. 


Richard the Lion-Hearted 








. 100 


XIX. 


The Great Charter . 








106 


XX. 


The Rise of Parliament . 








. 112 


XXI. 


Edward the First 








119 


XXII. 


Edward the Second . 








127 


XXIII. 


Edward the Third . 








^33 


XXIV. 


Progress of the People . 








141 


XXV. 


Richard the Second 








148 


XXVI. 


The House of Lancaster . 








155 


XXVII. 


The Wars of the Roses . 








162 



VI 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



XXVIII. 


The House of Vork 


. 


XXIX. 


Progress of the People . 


. 


XXX. 


The House of Tudor 




XXXI. 


The Rise of Protestantism 




XXXII. 


The Protector Somerset . 


. 


XXXIII. 


Queen Mary 


. 


XXXIV. 


The Maiden Queen . 


. 


XXXV. 


The Defeat of Spain 


. 


XXXVI. 


Progress of the People . 


. 


XXXVII. 


The House of Stuart 


. 


XXXVIII. 


The Struggle between the Cro\ 


vn and Parliament . 


XXXIX. 


The Civil War . 




XL. 


The Commonwealth 


. 


XLI. 


The Restoration of the Stuarts 


. 


XLII. 


The Revolution 




XLIII. 


Progress of the People . 


. 


XLIV. 


William of Orange . 




XLV. 


Queen Anne 




XLVI. 


The War with France 


. 


XLVII. 


The House of Hanover . 




XLVI 1 1. 


The Seven Years' War . 




XLIX. 


George the Third . 




L. 


William Pitt 


. 


LI. 


The Napoleonic Wars 


. 


LIL 


Progress of the People . 




LIIL 


George the Fourth . 


. 


LIV. 


Victoria .... 


. 


LV. 


Later Years of Victoria's Reign . . . . 


Chronological Annals 


Sovereigns 


of England 


First Lords 


of the Treasury and Prime Ministers of England . 


Index 







?Si 



YOUNG PEOPLE'S 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 



CHAPTER L 

ANCIENT BRITAIN. 

FIFTY-FIVE years before the birth of Chiist, Julius 
Caesar, the great Roman general, invaded the island 
of Britain. It was his ambition to extend his power over 
all that part of the globe which was then known. He had 
conquered, one after another, the tribes and nations which 
dwelt between Italy and the northern seas ; and now his 
heart was set on subduing this furthermost island. We 
know almost nothing of the history of Britain before his 
invasion, and so it is necessary to begin with that. 

Caesar's fleet anchored off the foggy coast. As his well- 
drilled legions landed, and marched across the 

° ' The Ro- 

marshes and through the dense forests, what sort man in- 
of people did he find there ? He and his generals 
must have been surprised to observe that they were not 
an utterly savage people, like many of the tribes he had 
before met on his conquering march. The Britons, in- 
stead of roaming wild, and sleeping in the forests or in 
damp caves, lived in low huts gathered in villages. It 

I 



2 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

was clear that they did not Hve peaceably, for the vil- 
lages were surrounded by hiirh, rude fences, en- 

Character ° . 

and habits circled by ditches, serving them as a protection 
against their neighbors. These villages were 
commonly planted in the midst of the forests, or on the 
islands with which the lakes (many of which have now 
disappeared) were studded. Caesar remarked, too, that the 
Britons were a very thrifty and industrious race. Their 
pastures were alive with the cattle they raised ; the fields 
outside the \'illage walls smiled with waving grain ; in some 
parts of the country he found the people mining tin and 
lead ; and everywhere he saw signs that the Britons were 
bold and skilful hunters. 

There were then many wild beasts in Britain, which have 
long since ceased to exist there. For instance, the men 
brought in from their hunting expeditions bears, wolves, 
elks, and wild boars. The Britons had also found out the 
value of horses, which, however, they used only to draw 
their chariots in battle ; and they had discovered that dogs 
could be trained to run down the game which the Britons 
hunted. In many arts the Britons were even then skilful. 
They could make pretty baskets and many kinds of 
pottery. They could fashion stones, bones, and horns in- 
to the points of deadly weapons. But they had not yet 
learned the uses of iron, or of any other metals except lead 
Personal ^^'^^^ ^i^"'- The Romaus could not but admire the 
traits. g'2g^ Strength, and manly beauty of the Britons. 
Their stalwart frames and shoulders, their fair complex- 
ions, large, clear blue eyes, and the long, light liair which 
fell in thick masses over their backs, their long mous- 
taches, and their scant but graceful clothing, gave them 
an attractive aspect. 



Ancient Britain. 3 

C£esar found, to his cost, that they were as vaHant 
and warlike as they were handsome and noble-looking. 
Armed with their spears and javelins, and with Methods 
hide-bound wooden shields, they made terrific i"war. 
attacks on his troops. But Csesar's army was much better 
armed and trained than the Britons were ; and he had, 
besides, another great advantage. The Britons were not 
united as a nation, but were divided into many tribes, 
each with its own chief; and these tribes were often 
hostile to each other. They could not, therefore, com- 
bine very well to resist the invader. The govern- Govern- 
ment of the British tribes was peculiar. The chiefs '^^'^^^ 
were by no means despotic rulers. On the contrary, the 
men of the tribe usually decided on any war, and how to 
carry it on ; and the chief had to act on their decision. 
Thus the rude tribes which inhabited the British island 
nineteen hundred years ago had something of that sort 
of self-government which is so securely established in the 
England of our day. 

Many of the Romans who went with Caesar were intel- 
ligent and observing men. They were very much struck, 
among other things, with the religion of the Britons. 
They found among the Britons a body of priests, T^e 
called Druids, who received far greater reverence Druids, 
and obedience from the people than did the Roman priests 
at home. These Druids, indeed, not only ruled the souls 
of the Britons by their religious rites, but had a large 
influence over their worldly affairs. They were the most 
learned men among the Britons, and taught them about 
the heavenly firmament, the use of herbs as medicines, 
and the traditions of the past. They gave counsel to the 
chiefs as well as to the common people. The person of 



4 ^ YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

a Druid was sacred. To kill or even harm a Druid was 
the deadliest sin a Briton could commit. 

In some respects the religion of the Druids was like 
Religious that of the Jews ; in others, like that of the 
belief. Romaus. They taught that men would be pun- 
ished for bad deeds, and rewarded for good deeds, here- 
after ; that the soul did not die, but passed, on the death 
of the body, into another body. Like the Romans, they 
believed in sacrifices, and, probably, in human sacrifices. 
But, unlike the Jews or the Romans, the Druids did not 
conduct their worship in temples or other covered build- 
ings. Their altars were erected in the open air, some- 
times in an opening in the forests, and sometimes on the 
summits of high hills ; and thus, under the blue sky, their 
solemn rites were performed. There are many ruins, 
consisting mainly of large stones placed in circles or 
long lines, still existing in England, which probably 
mark the spots where the Druids held their ceremo- 
nies in the presence of their rude congregations. The 
most remarkable of these ruins is the celebrated Stone- 
he nge. 

Caesar coveted for Rome the possession of a country 

inhabited by so skilful and warlike a race, and resolved, 

if possible, to conquer it. But he found this no easy 

task. So bold a front, indeed, did the Britons 

Landing: ' ' 

of coesar's offcr whcu hc attempted to land, that the Roman 
soldiers, victorious though they had been in a 
hundred battles, shrank from leaping on shore. At last 
a rash Roman standard-bearer set the example. He 
jumped into the midst of the enraged Britons. His com- 
rades, seeing his bold act and his danger, could no longer 
hesitate. They plunged into the sea up to their waists, 



ANCIENT BRITAIN. 5 

and hastened to save him. After a brief struggle, the 
Britons, overpowered by the superior weapons and csesar's 
skill of their enemies, were driven back ; and the ^^"^"j.^^^.^ 
Roman general advanced with his troops into the treat, 
heart of the country. It was not hard for him to subdue 
the tribes, as he came up with one after another of them ; 
but their resistance constantly hindered and checked him. 
Before he had reached the Thames, he found it necessary 
to return and recross the Channel ; for the time of year 
was approaching when it w^ould be difficult, if not impos- 
sible, for his galleys to make the short voyage across that 
stormy strait. 

Caesar was a man of strong will. He was not easily 

dismayed or discoura";ed. Having once set foot „. 

-' . His see- 

on the island of Britain, he was resolved to use ond inva- 

every effort to subdue it, and add it to the do- 
minions of Rome. So the next year he brought a still 
larger army to its shores, and once more landed. Mean- 
while the Britons, who suspected that they had not seen 
the last of him, had settled their own quarrels, and w^ere 
now combined, under a valiant chief named Caswallawn, 
to oppose him. Though they fought stoutly, the genius of 
Caesar and the splendid discipline of his Roman veterans 
were too much for them. After several battles, Caesar 
compelled the Britons to make peace with him and to sub- 
mit to his terms. This conquest of Caesar, however, 
proved for the time a fruitless one. The only advantage 
he gained from it was to prevent the Britons from sending 
aid, as they had before done, to his enemies in Gaul. 
Gaul (now France) had become a Roman province ; and 
Caesar had much trouble in keeping down the Gallic tribes, 
which were still restive under his rule. 



CHAPTER II. 

REIGN OF THE ROMANS. 

FOR ninety-seven years after Caesar's second invasion, 
the Britons were left undisturbed by Roman attacks. 
They began to think that they were forever rid of their 
Invasions ^^es. But it appeared that the ambitious Roman 
Claudius ^"^P^^C)^s had by no means forgotten the thrifty 
andNero. Uttlc island in the northern seas. In the year 
43 A. D. the Emperor Claudius sent an army to their shores, 
which conquered the southern portion of the island ; and 
Roman governors were set over the people. A great chief, 
Caractacus, held the northern portion against the invader; 
and although he himself was taken prisoner, and was car- 
ried in triumph to Rome, his brave tribe successfully 
resisted the advance of the enemy. Eighteen years later 
(6 1 A. D.) the Emperor Nero sent another army to Britain. 
This time the struggle between the invaders and the 
Britons was more obstinate than ever before. A brave 
Queen quccu of ouc of the tribcs, named Boadicea, who 
Boadicea. j-j^j bccu cruclly treated by the Romans, took 
command of a great army, burned many towns which had 
been settled by the Romans, and drove the intruders 
southward in a panic. A fresh Roman army, under Sue- 
tonius, hastily crossed the channel, and joined battle with 
Boadicea. 

The conflict was fierce and long. Boadicea herself, 
6 




BOADICEA AMONG HER TROOPS.— Page 7. 



REIGN OF THE ROMANS. / 

with her fair young daughters at her side, rode in a 
chariot among her troops, exhorting them to fight to the 
death for their country ; and when at last her enemies won 
the victory, she poisoned herself in the midst of her flying 
soldiers, rather than fall again into Roman hands. Eighty 
thousand Britons fell on this memorable and fatal battle- 
field. The sway of Rome was at last established g^j^^j^ 
over all of Britain that lay south of what we now submits 

. to Rome. 

call Scotland ; and a wise and good governor, 
named Agricola, was sent by the Emperor Vespasian 
(78 A. D.) to govern the new province. He reduced Britain 
to order, successfully repelled the attacks of the Caledo- 
nians, who dwelt in Scotland, erected a great wall across 
the island from the river Forth to the river Clyde, to 
protect the Roman part of Britain from the northern 
tribes, built paved roads, and gave to the Britons many 
wise and just laws. The rule of the Romans over Britain 
continued about four hundred years, and produced many 
good results in the island. In some respects it 

^ ^ Benefits 

was a wise and civilizing rule ; and many of the of Roman 
British tribes became quite reconciled to it. At 
the end of their long dominion both the country itself and 
the people wore a very different aspect. 

Walled towns, with houses built of brick and stone, 
theatres, public baths, and temples, had here and there 
replaced the rude villages of half-underground huts. Vast 
walls had been erected across the island in two places — 
the one built by Agricola, and another further south, from 
the river Tyne to the Solway Frith, Many excellent high- 
ways now stretched across the island. Waste lands had 
been converted into smiling fields of wheat and barley; 
and the Britons had learned from their Roman masters 



8 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

how to procure iron, as well as lead and tin, from the 
depths of the earth. Their trade, moreover, with the Gauls 
and other continental peoples, had grown rapidly. They 
had begun to exchange their productions for those of for- 
eign lands. London had become an important centre of 
trade, and was growing into a metropolis. 

So valuable did the Roman emperors regard their do- 
minion of Britain, that three of them made the 

The em- ' 

perorsin joumcy all the way from Rome to inspect it. 
These were Hadrian, Severus and Constantine. 
Severus, who was so old and feeble when he went to 
Britain that his soldiers had to carry him everywhere on a 
litter, died at the town we now know as York. Constan- 
tine, the first of the Christian emperors of Rome, whose 
Christian- niothcr was a Briton, introduced Christianity, 
ity. ^vhich had before taken some root in Britain, but 

had been suppressed. It was now, through the zeal of 
Constantine, ver}^ generally adopted as the creed of the 
British people. Though subdued by Roman arms, and 
benefited by the laws and the improvements of the Roman 
governors, the Britons had by no means lost their language 
Britons un- or their national traits. At the end of four 
changed. centurics of Romau rule, they still remained a 
distinct people, adhering to their ancient customs, speak- 
ing their ancient tongue, and retaining to a large degree 
their ancient dress, food, and occupations. 

The Romans were finally worried out of Britain by the 
^ ^ constant ravao^es of hostile tribes and the incur- 

The Ro- => 

mans sions of forcigH invaders. The Picts, or Caledo- 

abandon . , . , 

the is- mans, swept down upon their settlements from 
^'^'^^- the northern highlands ; the Scots, who dwelt in 

northern Ireland, crossed the water, and laid waste the 



REIGN OF THE ROMANS. 9 

western colonies ; the Saxons came in their fleets from 
what is now northernmost Germany, and played sad havoc 
along the eastern British coast. Meanwhile the troops of 
the Roman emperors were sorely needed in other parts of 
Europe, and at last soldiers could no longer be spared to 
keep Britain in subjection. So it came about, that, early 
in the fifth century, the Romans left the Britons Domestic 
once more to themselves. But, unhappily, the q^^rreis. 
Britons were not long to enjoy the blessings of peace. 
The Picts, the Scots, and invaders from Europe, still 
assailed them ; and the British tribes soon broke out into 
fierce quarrels among themselves. Then there arose a 
great chief named Vortigern, who, having learned a lesson 
in war from the Romans, called in foreign aid to ^^^ g^^_ 
rid the Britons of their most formidable foes — ons in- 
the Picts and Scots ; and this act led directly to 
a second conquest of the Britons by strangers. These 
strangers were the three hardy tribes of the Saxons, Jutes, 
and Angles, who were the ancestors of the modern Eng- 
lish. 

These three tribes dwelt on the borders of the North 
Sea, in that part of northern Europe which lies at the base 
of the Danish peninsula. They were intrepid sailors, full 
of the spirit of adventure, the bravest of warriors, fond of 
peril and difficulty. They were far in advance of their 
German neighbors in the arts of workmanship and in their 
manner of living. Their houses were, for that remote 
period, comfortable ; their fields were skilfully „ 

' ' ' -' Manners 

tilled ; they were laborious and thrifty ; and they and cuar- 
were devoted to hardy sports. They loved to 
follow the chase and to race their horses. There were 
no merrier feasters, no more ardent lovers of music and 



10 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND, 

dancing in the world. They were a law-abiding people. 
P^ach village governed its own affairs ; and twice a year 
there met a general assembly, composed of delegates irom 
all the villages, to consult about the common good, i ere 
we find the origin of the English Parliament and of he 
legislative bodies of our own country. The grievances li 
the people were often settled in these councils ; but u e 
Savage custom of " ordcal by battle " prevailed amon • 
customs. ii^QiYi, by which a man might fight his enemy hana 
to hand, and he who won the victory in such a contest wa. 
supposed to have justice on his side. These people were 
heathens, and worshipped gods of their own. They had 
temples in the depths of the forests, before which they 
often burned the trophies they had taken in war. The 
week-days Tuesday and Wednesday were named from two 
gods, Tew and Woden, and Thursday and Friday from 
Thor and Friga. The Saxons, Jutes, and Angles, even in 
that early age, were very intelligent. They could write, 
and carve letters on monuments ; but there were no books 
among them. 

This was the hardy race that the perplexed Vortigern 
summoned to aid him against the Picts and Scots. In 
doing so, he destroyed the independence of the Britons. 
Like the fisherman in the "Arabian Nights," who opened 
the jar on the seashore, and let loose the mighty spirit 
who overwhelmed him, Vortigern admitted to his island 
realm a race that was destined to overspread and rule it. 
The strangers crossed the sea under two gigantic and 
The sav- h^roic chicfs, Hengist and Horsa. At first they 
pfovi"'^^ faithfully helped Vortigern and the other British 
treacher- priuccs in their wars with the Picts and Scots, and 
gained many hard-fought battles. But soon the 



REIGN OF THE ROMANS. II 

ambition of the Saxons was aroused by the aj:pect of the 
• fair and flourishing lands of the Britons. As new armies 
came over the sea, and the Saxons received new strength 
thereby, they began to covet the kingdoms of Britain for 
themselves. 

Finally Hengist and Horsa boldly turned their arms 
against their old allies. The Britons held out bravely 
against them for a while ; l^ut the numbers, discipline, and 
prowess of the Saxons proved too much for them in the 
end. They first conquered what is now Kent ; 
then Sussex ; then western Britain, which they conquer 
called Wessex ; later, the lands along the eastern 
coast, which they called East Anglia, and Essex, and 
Middlesex. These successive conquests were spread over 
a period of one hundred and tifty years. At the end of 
that period, the Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes — the 
three tribes who had crossed the seas and invaded Britain, 
and who were near kinsmen in race — had taken posses- 
sion of nearly all of the British Isle, excepting Wales on 
the west, and Scotland, as far as the Frith of Forth, on 
the north. All these tribes came to be known Ti,ey make 
under the common name of " the Enfrlish." England. 
What they did in Britain after they had thus conquered it 
will be told in the next chapter. 



CHAPTER III. 

BRITAIN BECOMES ENGLAND. 

BY the beginning of the seventh centur}' (607), but 
few of the Britons remained on their native soil. 
The Enghsh had massacred them as they conquered them, 
The Con- and had taken possession of their fertile lands 
rib!yVom'. ^"^1 snug villagcs. The English had also killed 
piete, their priests, and had thrown down their lempies. 
A few Britons, no doubt, escaped into Wales, Ireland, 
and Scotland ; but from their own country they had almost 
completely disappeared. The English, having thus spread 
themselves over the island as far as the Frith of Forth 
on the north, and as far as the fastnesses of Wales on the 
west, multiplied rapidly in numbers, and thrived on their 
new domain. They planted the manners and customs and 
heathen religion of their old country in the new ; but as 
they increased in numbers, and as the various tribes grew 
jealous of each other, they could no longer maintain their 
The Saxon o^^l f^ec fomi of govemmcnt. Gradually neigh- 
kmgdoms. boring settlements joined together in self-defence, 
and for the purpose of making war on rival settlements; 
and thus kingdoms came into existence, and kings were 
chosen to rule over them. These kings had far more 
power than the English chiefs of the old country, and often 
ruled their subjects with an iron hand. 

As the kingdoms grew, they began to engage in fierce 

12 



BRITAIN BECOMES ENGLAND. 'I3 

and bitter wars with one another. The kings grew ambi- 
tious to extend their dominions over the island, and the 
warhke EngUsh readily responded to the call to arms. By 
and by, three of the seven realms into which Eng- The Hep- 
land was now divided, became greater in prowess t^^^^y- 
and territory than the rest. These were, Northumberland, 
which lay in the north of England, and in Scotland as 
far as the Frith of Forth : Mercia, which occupied the 
central portion of the island and Wessex, which included 
the territory south of Mercia, and found its southern limits 
along the English channel. Able and warlike kings arose 
to reign over these kingdoms, and to battle with each other 
for supremacy ; and thus England was plunged in a succes- 
sion of bloody wars for several centuries. Not internal 
only did the English fight each other, but they "^'^''^■ 
were often engaged in stubb:)rn conflicts with the Welsh 
on the west, and the Picts on the north ; so that, thrifty 
as were the people, they had little time to cultivate their 
farms, or to engage in the industries in which they were 
skilled. 

The kings of Northumberland were the first to attempt 
the conquest of the rest of the country. Four „ ^ 

^ -^ North- 

of these, named Ethelfrith, Edwin, Oswald, and umbrian 
Oswy (whose reigns extended from 593 to 670), 
were one and all valiant generals and able rulers. Ethel- 
frith won his first victories over the Picts. He next fought 
the Welsh, and, having also subdued them, marched against 
the East English. He fell in a battle with this race, and 
was succeeded by Edwin. Of Edwin many romantic stories 
are told. He was a yet greater warrior than Ethelfrith ; 
and so orderly were his subjects, that property was safe, 
wherever it might be left, throughout his dominions. He 



14 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

built a city in the north, \vhich he named after himself, 
" PkhvinsboroLigh," the same city that we now call " Edin- 
Rise of burgh.'- Edwin was extremely fond of pomp and 
Mercia. parade. He continued the wars of Ethelfrith 
with vigor and success. His most formidable enemy was 
Penda, king of Mercia , and he was finally slain by Penda 
in a battle at Hatfiekl Oswald next ascended the throne 
of Northumberland ; but he, too, fell in battle against 
Penda. Then Oswy, the last of the great kings of North- 
umberland, marched against Penda, defeated him, and 
chased him and his army into a river, w^here the Mercian 
king and many of his soldiers were drowned. Oswy then 
advanced promptly into Mercia, and at last established his 
sway almost throughout England. But Northumberland 
did not long retain its supremacy, Egfrith, Oswy's suc- 
cessor, after gaining many brilliant victories, was defeated 
and slain by the Picts, and Northumberland now lost its 
hold upon the other kingdoms. 

I'he most powerful of the English kings, after the death 
of Eirfrith, was Cadwalla, kins: of Wessex. On 

Wessex fci ' 'is 

rivals his northern border lay the rival realm of Mercia, 
which had become so strong under the warlike 
Penda. It was the task of Cadwalla and of his successors 
on the throne of Wessex, to subdue Mercia, and to subject 
it to their rule. For a long while the conflict for suprem- 
acy between these two kingdoms was doubtful. Some- 
times the kings of Wessex overran Mercia, and seemed 
on the point of completing its conquest ; then an able 
king of Mercia would arise to drive back the tide of 
invasion, and to penetrate far into the downs and vales 
of Wessex. The most vigorous of the kings of Mercia 
was Offa, who was, however, as cruel as he was brave. 



BRITAIN EECOMES ENGLAND. 1 5 

Offa fought the West Saxons with great pertinacity, and 
at last overcame them, and became the most powerful 
monarch who had yet reigned in England. All its kings 
became for a while subject to him. He defeated the Welsh, 
and built a great dike as a boundary and defence between 
England and Wales. Offa was a wise sovereign. He 
made many good laws, and took great pains to promote 
the welfare of his people. , 

The monarch who at last united all the English king- 
doms under one sceptre was Eg-bert, kin": of 

^ & ' fc> Wessex 

Wessex ; and now for the first time (800 a. d.) becomes 
the whole country w^as known as " England." 
Its capital was at Winchester. Egbert also subjugated 
the Welsh and the Picts, the kings of which nations be- 
came his obedient vassals. Many great changes had 
taken place in the English kingdoms during the long 
struggle for chiefship between the rival rulers. Of these, 
the most important w^ere the conversion of the heathen 
English to Christianity, and the beginnings of an English 
literature. It has already been told how the Roman 
emperor Constantine restored Christianity among the 
Britons. When the English first invaded the island, a 
very large portion of the Britons were still Christians. 
They had their Christian temples, priests, and monasteries. 
The wrath of the English pagans was especially directed 
against the faith of their victims. The churches ,j,^^ Pa^an 
were ruthlessly burned, and the priests were killed saxons 

■' root out 

at their very altars. When the English had christian- 
completed their conquest, therefore, they estab- ^ ^' 
lished their own religion, and raised temples to their ter- 
rible gods — to Woden, the war god, Thor, the god of 
thunder and storm, and Tew^, the god of darkness. Mean- 



l6 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

while, Christianity took refuge behind the fastnesses of 
Wales and in sea-girt Ireland. 

But in due time the English also were converted to 
Christianity. Toward the close of the sixth cen- 

England 

becomes tury (597) Etliclbert, king of Kent, married a 
Gallic princess, named Bertha. She was a Chris- 
tian ; and on her marriage she insisted on exercising the 
rites of her religion in her new home. She built a church, 
and had a Gallic bishop to officiate in it ; and sought, 
Mission of though with little success, to win her husband's 
Augustine, subjects to hcr own faith. Not long after, how^- 
ever, a learned and zealous monk, named Augustine, ar- 
rived in England, attended by a company of brother monks. 
Augustine had been sent by the Pope to convert the heathen 
English ; and so earnestly did he exhort the people of 
Kent, that both King Ethelbert himself, and large num- 
bers of his subjects, submitted to be baptized by Augus- 
tine in the Christian Church. Augustine, thus encouraged, 
widened the field of his labors, and began to preach and 
baptize in the neighboring kingdoms. He was made a 
bishop, and ordained priests among the natives ; and to 
the last day of his life, Augustine labored with unflagging 
zeal in the sacred cause to which he had devoted himself. 

But the northern part of England — the part included 
in the kingdom of Northumberland — was still uncon- 
verted, at the time of Ausfustine's death in 6io. 

Christian- ' <=> 

ityinthe Edwiu, king of Northumberland, however, had 

nortli. 

married Ethelburg, the sister of the converted 
king of Kent ; and Ethelburg had brought with her to the 
north a Christian monk, a friend of Augustine's, named 
Paullinus. Queen Ethelburg's first child — a daughter — 
was baptized as a Christian by Paullinus, whose zeal in 



BRITAIN BECOMES ENGLAND. 1/ 

making converts in the north rivalled that of Augustine 
in Kent. He induced King Edwin himself to be baptized ; 
and ere long the good monk was busy from morning till 
night baptizing the converts who flocked to him from every 
part. Thus Northumberland in a few years became, like 
Kent, a Christian kingdom. 

In the course of the next hundred years, Christianity 
spread rapidly through the other English kingdoms. 
Missionaries went forth from Northumberland to preach 
and to convince; and many were the ardent Irish Aidfrom' 
priests and monks who crossed into England, i^^eiand. 
and joined the others in making converts. At last, in 
the year 66S^ the Pope sent a priest named Theodore 
to England, to fully establish the Christian faith, and to 
organize the Church. Theodore set bishops in all the 
kingdoms, and appointed priests to minister in TheBritisb 
the various parishes. Long before Egbert came chriitian- 
to the throne and united the English king- i^ed. 
doms under his rule, the Christian religion had become 
the general faith alike of the English, the Irish and the 
Welsh. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. 

ALTHOUGH Egbert extended his rule over all Eng- 
land, Wales and Scotland, the lesser kingdoms still 
survived, and were still governed by their own kings 
under Esibert's lordship. But from that time 

Egbert and ^ ^ 

the under- England was a nation, with one supreme head 
and a common destiny. The English no longer 
fought among themselves for supremacy, but thenceforth 
were united in their conflicts with foreign foes. Egbert 
was a statesman as well as a soldier, and succeeded in 
bringing about a condition of order which had never be- 
fore prevailed. 

But after he had established himself securely on his 
throne, the English were assailed by fierce and 

The Danes. . ^ . . i • i i 

persistent enemies, who were destmed to keep 
the island in turmoil for two centuries. These were the 
people called the Danes. Many of them came, as the 
name implies, from Denmark. Others were natives of 
Norway and Friesland, and were therefore related in race 
to the English themselves. The Danes were very daring 
and skilful on the ocean. They were pirates, and scoured 
the northern seas in search of prey. They were heathens, 
and worshipped the same deities as the English had done 
before they were convertec''i to Christianity. Many of the 

i8 



THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. I9 

petty Danish rulers, who were called "vikings," being 
banished from their own domains, took to the sea, and 
engaged in piracy along the various coasts. It Tiieir pira- 
was towards the end of Egbert's reign that the '^^®^- 
Danes began to make their appearance off the English 
shores, and to ravage the villages and hamlets. They 
came usually in small fleets of three or four ships, sailed 
up a river, landed and built a fort, and then issued forth 
on their errand of plunder. They seized horses and 
cattle, and entering the huts, stripped them of everything 
of any value. Nor did these ferocious Northmen confine 
themselves to deeds of robbery. They fiercely Their sav- 
hated the Christian priests, and murdered them ^sery. 
in cold blood whenever they could seize them ; and 
burned and robbed every church which they met on their 
expeditions. 

From this time the depredations and massacres com- 
mitted by the Danes were almost constant. They began 
to get a foothold on the island, and erected forts on the 
coast, and even made settlements, from which the Their coio- 
English were unable to dislodge them. Danish "'°^- 
colonies sprang up here and there. They were of 
the same race, and spoke the same language as th:i 
English ; and so, little by little, many of these colonies 
mingled with their English neighbors, and at last becam.e 
one community with them. But this was not until long 
after King Egbert had ceased to reign. 

Egbert had two sons, Ethelwolf and Ethelstan. To 
Ethelwolf he left the English crown (836), and Ethelstan 
became under-king of Kent, Sussex, and Essex. The sons 
Ethelwolf's reign was long and stormy. He was °^ Egbert. 
almost constantly engaged in bitter warfare. He sturdily 



20 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

fought the Danes, who had now begun to swarm along the 
southern coast, and defeated them in a great battle at Oak- 
lea, so that for a short while the land was free of them. 
But no sooner had the Danes been overcome, than the 
Britons, who were settled in Devonshire, rose in revolt, 
and were only suppressed after a bloody conflict. Ethel- 
wolf was a pious king, and made a pilgrimage to Rome, 
where he made his submission to the Pope, and gave him 
many rare drifts. The latter part of his reign was 

Ethelwolf J b ^ . . , , . 

and his peaceful, and at his death (860) he divided his 
kingdom among his four sons. Ethelbald, the 
eldest, became over-king of England ; Ethelbert became 
under-king of Kent, and the other two, Ethelred and Al- 
fred, became jointly under-kings of Wessex. 

These four brothers were destined to reign in turn over 
the whole kingdom. The reigns of the first three were 
brief. Ethelbald, who was a good and wise man, wore the 
crown only two years ; but during that period he won the 
respect and love of his people, so that when he died they 
" mourned greatly for him." He was succeeded by his 
brother Ethelbert, in whose reign the Danes renewed their 
attacks upon the English. Ethelbert's death, after a reign 
of six years (866), left the throne open to the next brother, 
Ethelred, in whose time the Danes became more bold and 
The Danes formidable than ever. They came with large 
once more, flge^s, landed on the northern and eastern coasts, 
and advanced into Northumberland, over a portion of 
which they set a Danish king. They invaded Scotland 
and Ireland, penetrated into the southern country of the 
Marchland, and found their way into the middle of the 
island. Here they were encountered by King Ethelred 
and his brother Alfred, who fought them with great vigor. 



THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. 21 

and at last drove them in disorder back to the coast. In 
East Anglia the Danes captured the under-king, Edmund a 
Edmund, and killed him with their arrows. It is ^^^ty^- 
related that when Edmund was taken, he was brought be- 
fore a council of the Danish warriors. They told him 
that if he would renounce Christianity, and return to the 
worship of the heathen gods, Thor and Woden, his life 
should be spared. He proudly declined to accept his life 
at such a price. " Cannot we slay thee ? " the Danes 
sternly asked. " Cannot I die ? " the brave king replied. 
Edmund was made a saint for his courage and piety, and 
a noble abbey, called Bury St. Edmunds, was built over 
his grave. 

King Ethelred was killed in battle with the Danes, after 
a reign of five years, and was succeeded by his Alfred the 
brother Alfred (871). This brings us to the ^'■^^'^• 
first lofty and towering figure in Phigland's history. 
Alfred was truly " the Great," as he was called. He 
was the favorite, though the youngest, son of the good 
king Ethelwolf, and was also the best beloved of his 
mother, who was " a religious woman, noble by birth 
and nature." Alfred was ardently fond of learning from 
his early boyhood. When he was very young, his mother 
one day showed him and his brothers a richly ill us- ^ royai 
trated book of poetry, and said to them, " Which- scholar. 
ever of you soonest learns this volume shall have it for his 
own." Although he was the youngest, Alfred was the first 
to complete the task, and €0 won the book. He learned 
to read at the age of twelve; and in his youth went 
twice to Rome, and travelled in many European countries. 
These journeys served to train his mind, and to create in 
him a taste for knowledge and refinement. Alfred was 



22 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

married at the age of nineteen to the daughter of a Lon- 
don alderman. On the very day of his wedding he was 
smitten with a painful disease, which clung to him for the 
rest of his life. 

He had not long sat on the throne before he gave his 
A brave and subjccts ample proof of his courage as a soldier, 
wise king. ^^^^ q£ ]-^-g Yvisdon-j ^s a rulcr. Early in his reign 
the Danes began once more to swarm along the English 
coasts, to land and plunder the villages, and to seek settle- 
ments for colonies of their own. A Danish chief named 
Halfdan established his followers in Yorkshire, and a Dan- 
ish king, Gorm, committed many ravages in Wessex. A 
New inva- little later the Danes crossed the sea in such for- 
sions. midable numbers that Alfred was forced to take 

refuge in a small island in Somerset, where he remained for 
some time in hiding. It was at this time that he had an 
Alfred in adv^cuturc which has often been related. One 
adversity, ^-j^y }-^g ^ycnt iuto a hut, in disguise, to elude his 
enemies. While there, the poor woman who lived in the 
hut asked him to watch some cakes which were frying in 
the fireplace, while she went out. But so absorbed be- 
came Alfred in mending his bows and arrows, that the 
cakes altogether escaped his mind. When the woman 
returned she found the cakes all burned and spoiled. 
She did not know that her guest was the king ; and she 
grew very angry, and exclaimed that he was ready enough 
to eat the cakes, but was too lazy to watch them. 

While Alfred was hiding, his generals were not idle; and 

in no long time he was able to leave his retreat, and once 

more put himself at the head of his army. He 

He reap- ^ -^ 

pears in marchcd against' the Danes, inflicted upon them a 
severe defeat, and drove them back to their strong- 




KING AI>i KKD AND THE CAKES. — Page 22. 



THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. 23 

holds on the sea-coast. He pressed them so hard that they 
were at last forced to surrender ; and he persuaded Gorm, 
the Danish chief, and his men, to renounce their pagan 
faith and be baptized as Christians. The Danes Makes 

peace -with 

were too strong and numerous to be entirely the Danes, 
driven out of the island ; and so Alfred made peace with 
them, and gave up to Gorm the kingdom of East Anglia and 
the northern part of the Marchland. The Danes also ruled 
in Yorkshire. So near akin were they to the English that 
they mingled with thejn, gradually adopted their laws and 
customs, and from having been rovers and pirates, settled 
down into peaceable farmers and shepherds. For a while 
there was tranquillity in England. The P'.nglish, taught in 
arts, trades, and learning by the monks, who in many 
parts of the country were gathered in large monasteries, 
became more and more one people, and advanced in 
civilization under their wise and good King Alfred. 
Towns grew up where there had once been only solitudes. 
The foundations of a mighty nation were being laid. 

After an interval of peace, Alfred's reign was again 
disturbed by the incursions of foreign foes. An ^ew 
intrepid pirate named Hasting, after ravaging piracies. 
Gaul, turned his attacks upon the English coast. Hasting 
was a warrior of great energy and courage. He landed 
with a large force on the coast of Kent, built forts there, 
and prepared to make a conquest of the neighboring 
regions. Other Danes sailed up the Thames, and pene- 
trated mid-England ; yet others sailed up the river Lea, 
and fortified its banks. Alfred fought these invading 
bands one after the other, and succeeded in .,^ ^, 

Alfred's 

driving them before him wherever he encountered navai 
them. He caused a canal to be cut, which 



24 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

diverted the current of the Lea, and thus left the Danish 
ships dry and unable to be taken out. So the Danes 
took horse and fled across country to the Severn. Alfred 
also caused some ships to be built, which he himself 
designed, larger and stronger than those of his enemies, 
and with these he was able to protect the English coast 
better than ever before. 

This great king did not permit the harassing conflicts 
Alfred a ^^i^-h the Daucs to divert him from his schemes 
civihzer. £qj. improving the condition and welfare of his 
people. He framed wise codes of law for them, sup- 
pressed robbery and crimes of violence, and called 
together councils of wise men to advise him, and to aid in 
the execution of his reforms. As far as possible, he 
himself administered justice among his subjects. He 
corrected the mistakes of his judges. When he came 
to the throne he found the people in a wretchedly ignorant 
He favors statc. Thcrc wcrc few or no schools, and learning 
learning. ^^.^^^ confiucd to the pricsts and the monasteries. 
Many of the clergy, even, could not read or write. 
Alfred revived the old schools, and established new ones. 
He opened a large school in his palace, where his own 
children and those of some of his nobles were taught. He 
was very zealous in encouraging scholarship, and in pre- 
serving such literature as already existed in England. 
Alfred was also a very relio;ious man. He was 

Alfred's -^ * 

pious piously devoted to the Christian Church, and w^as 
always its ardent friend and protector. He re- 
solved to give to God '' half of his time, labor, and money." 
He was wisely charitable, saying that what he gave in 
alms should always be "bestowed discreetly."' 

In spite of the disease, which never left him, Alfred 



THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. 25 

was very active and laborious in his habits. He was 
always busy. He carried a note-book constantly about 
him, to jot down what occurred to him from time to time. 
He was a lover of hunting, and encouraged his people to 
indulge in that sturdy pastime. He used to teach his 
goldsmiths how to work in gold, and was j^assionately 
fond of music. He invented a horn lantern, in nisinven- 
which candles were burned so as to measure ^^°^^ ^^^^ 

accom- 

time. Alfred was very curious about foreign piish- 
countries. He listened eagerly to the stories of °^^" ^' 
mariners and travellers, and sent messages and presents 
to rulers and churches, even as far as India. Alfred's 
reign was a great blessing to England. Under his wise 
and loving rule the people advanced rapidly in know- 
ledge, trade, the arts, and in moral virtues. They became 
more submissive to the law, and enjoyed a greater degree 
of security and justice than ever before. Alfred died at 
the age of fifty-five (901), leaving behind him a name 
honored and revered far above that of any king who had 
yet risen in England. 



CHAPTER V. 

GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH NATION". 

ONE result of Alfred's rule was that England, under 
his successors, took her place as an equal among 
the other nations of Europe. England now grew stronger 
as a united kin2:dom every vear. Edward, called 

Results of c> J ^ 7 ^ 

Alfred's "the Elder," Alfred's son, who succeeded him 
on the throne (901), had a troubled reign. 
His cousin, Ethelwald, tried to seize the crown, and, 
joining arms with the Danes in Eastern England, invaded 
Kent and the Marchland. After a long and savage contest, 
EdAvard Edward at last made peace with these enemies. 
a^-i He had a sister named Ethelfled, who was a 

Ethelfled. 

woman of strong, vigorous nature, and who 
greatly aided him in over-coming his enemies, and 
strengthening his kingdom. She built the fortified town 
of Chester, where the lofty walls she erected are still 
to be seen ; and she both governed wisely in that part 
of England which her 'brother gave her to rule, and 
victoriously battled with the Danes and Welsh who ever 
and anon assailed her. She even advanced from Mercia 
to lay siege to York, but cUed before the walls Of that city. 
Edward won many triumphs over the Danes, the Welsh, 
England's ^^^^^^ the Scots. Hc reconqucrcd the Marchland, 
place reduced the Welsh to submission, compelled 

among the ' '■ 

nations. the allegiaucc of the Danish Kings in York- 

26 



GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH NATION. 2/ 

shire, and even brought the King of the Scots to ac- 
knowledge him as sovereign. While all these wars were 
going on, Edward followed his father's wise example 
in extending the relations of England with the other 
European realms. One of his daughters married the 
Emperor Otto, another the French king, Charles the 
Simple, a third the king of Aries, a fourth the Count 
of Paris, and yet a fifth the Danish king, Sigtric. 
Thus he brought England within the circle of nations, 
and formed alliances which were destined to serve 
the country in good stead. Edward was as ardent as 
Alfred in his devotion to the Church. He founded new 
bishoprics, protected the monasteries, and permitted his 
sixth daughter to become a nun. 

To Edward succeeded his son Ethelstan, called the 
"Steadfast" (925). Ethelstan, when a boy, had been 
a great favorite with his grandfather, the good King 
Alfred. He was a very handsome lad, with Etheistan-s 
long, bright golden curls and sparkling blue '^^'^s- 
eyes, and was gentle and kind-hearted as well as brave. 
When he was four years old, King Alfred gave him 
a purple cloak, a handsome sword, and a shield which 
was fastened to a belt studded with gems. Ethelstan's 
reign was even more disturbed by wars than those of 
Alfred and Edward had been. He, too, was attacked 
by a rival claimant to the throne, and the Danes in the 
north rose in revolt. But Ethelstan inherited the warlike 
qualities of his predecessors, took and added Northumber- 
land to his realm, and at one time (937) fought a great 
batlle with the Danes, Welsh, and Scots combined. A 
story is told that one of the Danish chiefs, named Olaf, 
went into Edward's camp the day before this battle, dis- 



28 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

guised as a harper. His object was to see how large 
the kin2:'s force was. It happened that a 

stratagem ^ 

of a Danish soldicr who had once fought under Olaf saw 
him, and recognized him. His suspicion was 
confirmed ^vhen he perceived that Olaf refused the 
money which was offered him for playing on the 
harp. But he said nothing until Olaf had departed, 
when he told Edward who it was. " Why, then," said 
the king, " did you let him go free ? " " If," replied 
the soldier, " I had betrayed him whom I once served, 
how shouldst thou, whom I now serve, have trusted me ? " 
The result of .the battle was that Ethelstan vanquished 
and pursued his combined enemies, and compelled them 
to make peace with him. 

Ethelstan not only added to the dominions of his father, 
but, like him, strengthened the friendly relations between 
England and the other European nations. He exchanged 
costly presents with the kings, and encouraged intercourse 
and commerce between the English and their neighbors, 
the Gauls. His reign, however, was a brief one ; and he 
Reign of ^^^s succccded (940) by his younger brother 
Edmund. Edmund, who in his turn only wore the crown 
six years. But it was during Edmund's rule that there 
arose a very able statesman, whose acts had a large 
influence upon the destinies of the English. This was 
Dunstan, a monk, and abbot of the famous monastery 
of Glastonbury. Dunstan was the chief adviser, not 
only of Edmund, but of several of the kings who 
succeeded him. For many years he was very powerful ; 
^, ^ and he used his power with rare eners-v and 

Character i -^^ 

of Dun- effect. He aided the soverei2;n in more com- 

•tan. . , . 

pletely uniting the various sections of England 



GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH NATION. 29 

under one crown, and in greatly reducing the authority of 
the under-kings who still remained. But Dunstan's chief 
work was in advancing the Church. His purpose was to 
increase its power, and to securely establish its influence 
throughout the realm. He saw many evils in the Church, 
and these he labored earnestly and honestly to correct. 
Perceiving that many of the clergy who were set over the 
parishes were ignorant and corrupt, he strove to put in 
their places the monks, who had more learning, and were 
more zealous in their religious duties. 

Then he tried to make the priests abandon their wives, 
and forbade them to marrv, so that their whole „. 

■> ' His ser- 

thoughts and time miirht be p^iven to their vices to the 
sacred calling. He sought to restore the inter- 
course between the English Church and those of the 
continent. Besides these measures, Dunstan in many 
ways labored to increase learning, piety, and attention to 
religious duties. He subjected the clergy to a series of 
strict rules governing their conduct. He told them that 
they must take good care of their churches ; refrain from 
the vices of drinking, gambling, and careless speech ; 
distribute alms, teach the children, study the Bible, and 
preach regularly every Sunday. In a word, Dunstan did 
more than any man since the great Alfred, both to 
strengthen and unite the English monarchy, and to raise 
the Church to a great height of power in the land. 

King Edmund was slain by an outlaw, named Leof, 
as he was feasting with his courtiers. Three brief reigns 
followed. Edred, Edmund's brother, occupied the throne 
nine years, and, although in feeble health, Edmund's 
fought the Danes with success, and ardently ^^ccessors. 
supported Dunstan's reforms in the Church. Then 



30 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

came Edwy, Edmund's son (955), who was a hot-headed 
and quarrelsome prince. He exiled Dunstan, and quar- 
relled bitterly with his brother Edgar, who at one time 
led a revolt against him. Edwy only reigned three years, 
Edgar the whcn hc was probably slain in secret; and 
Peaceable. Edgar, Called the " Peaceable," came to the 
throne (958). This young king called Dunstan back to 
England, and restored him to the high position in the 
kingdom of which Edwy had deprived him. Edgar was a 
wise and vigorous ruler. He had a large fleet built, which 
sailed every year completely around England and Scotland, 
to guard the coasts from Danish invaders. He spent much 
of his time in travelling among his subjects, inquiring into 
their needs and grievances, and seeing to it that his magis- 
trates dealt justly by them. 

Edgar's reign of seventeen years was for the most part a 
His success- peaccful as well as a prosperous one. Although, 
fuiruie. ^^ ^j-g^^ i-,e 1-ij^d iQ f^gi^,- y^riiY^ ^i-^g Scotch and 

Welsh, and subdue them to his crown, he had time, dur- 
ing the greater part of his rule, to devote himself 10 the 
improvement of his people. He took care to treat the 
Danes, who were now^ quietly settled in various parts of 
the island, as kindly as he did his English subjects. They 
were permitted to make their own laws, and to live in 
a condition of complete equality with their English neigh- 
bors. Many anecdotes are told of Edgar's sturdy courage 
and strength of character. It seems that, though strong 
in body, he was very small of stature. One day he was 
told that the king of Scotland had exclaimed, *' It is 
wonderful that so large a realm should obey one little 
Courage, mau." Pklsjar thereupon sent for the kins:, led 

notcize, , . . , , , . 

the test. hmi nito a wood, and producmg two swords, 



GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH NATION. 3 1 

offered one of them to his royal vassal. " Now," said 
Edgar, "we will try which is the better man, and see 
whether I am unfit to rule men taller than myself." The 
Scot fell at Edgar's feet, and craved his pardon, declar- 
ing that he had only spoken in jest ; whereupon the 
king readily forgave him. 

Edgar was succeeded by his son Edward (975), who 
reigned four years only, and who submitted himself com- 
pletely to Dunstan's guidance. His reign was not a very 
eventful one, although an unsuccessful attempt was made 
to substitute his step-brother, Ethelred, in his place on the 
throne. With Dunstan's able counsels, the affairs Dunstan in 
of the kingdom progressed almost in peace dur- ^^^e^^'^d. 
ing the brief period of Edward's rule. His ward, 
death was one of the most cruel crimes in English history. 
On returning, one day, from the hunt, Edward rode up to 
the house of his stepmother, Elfthrith, and stopped there 
a moment to rest and refresh himself. She offered him 
some drink : and as she was handing him the mug, one 
of her attendants sprang upon him and stabbed him 
in the back. The king, feeling himself wound- Edward's 
ed, spurred up his horse, and rode rapidly "^^^der. 
away. But he became faint, and fell from his saddle. 
He was dragged through a forest by his frightened horse, 
until he died in great agony. This deed was done at the 
instigation of Elfthrith, who desired to see the crown pass 
to her son Ethelred. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 

DURING the century which elapsed between the acces- 
sion of Alfred the Great and the death of Edgar 
the Peaceable (871-975), many changes took place in the 
condition of the English people. The various ranks, or 
classes, into which they were divided became more settled 
and distinct. The ancient Saxon social divisions 

The feudal 

system be- remained, and gradually developed into what is 
^^'^^' known as the '' feudal system." The social 

ranks consisted of the "earls," or ancient nobility, who 
owned large landed estates, were almost always warriors, 
Ranks and ^^""^ wcrc adviscrs of the king ; the " thanes," 
orders. ^y|^Q wcrc noblcs of a later date, being chiefly 
followers and adherents of the kings, or successful sol- 
diers, to whom the king gave domains and titles ; the 
" churls," who were freemen, and usually possessed small 
landed estates; and the " slaves," who were held as such, 
for the most part, by the earls and thanes. 

Of these classes the slaves were by far the largest part 
The churls o^ the population. They were the tillers of the 
or serfs. ^qJj^ ^j-^g shcphcrds, the servants, and the me- 
chanics of the time. They were entirely subjected to 
the will of their masters, who were permitted by the law 
to put them to death if they were disobedient or ran away, 

32 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 33 

to whip or chain them, and to sell them at will. The price 
of a slave in those days was only five or ten shillings ; but 
a shilling represented a much larger sum than it does now. 
When an estate was sold, the slaves were generally sold 
along with it. The principal influence against inflicting 
cruelty on the slaves was the Church. The 

^'-.i 1 1 .1 The church 

Church grew^, as we have seen, to be very power- litigates 
ful ; and it did very much to miti2:ate the evils theeviisof 

' ■' ^ serfdom. 

of slavery. It compelled a master who killed or 
was cruel to his slave to do painful penance. Many of 
the bishops and priests gave their slaves their freedom. 
In time, the care of the Church for the slaves reaped 
good fruit. Many privileges were given to them by the 
law. The master was obliged to feed them well, and to 
give them Sunday as a holiday. Slaves often found time 
to work outside of their regular tasks, and so saved 
enough to purchase their liberty. 

In the course of time, large numbers of the "churls," or 
freemen, fell into poverty and distress. They could no 
longer support themselves and their families by cultivating 
their little farms. They therefore resorted to the Relations 
neighboring earls or thanes for help and pro- gerJ^nd 
tection, and became subject to them as to ^oxas. 
powerful masters. Although they did not become slaves, 
they were bound to the great estates. The lord protected 
these dependents from poverty and injustice, and gave 
them and their families the means of support. They, on 
the other hand, tilled his acres and took care of his cows, 
sheep, and pigs, and, when he went to war, followed him 
as soldiers. Thus a new social class came into existence, 
lower than the churls, and higher than the slaves ; and 
those who belonired to it were called "villeins." This 



;°arliament. 



34 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

relation between the lords on the one hand, and the 
villeins on the other, was the beginning in England of 
that " feudal system " which, in the process of centuries, 
extended through the greater part of Europe. 
There appeared, too, in this century of progress, 
the germ of what became long afterwards the English 
Parliament. A council, composed of the earls, thanes, 
bishops, and abbots of the monasteries, was formed, and 
held meetings once or twice a year for the purpose of 
advising the king. This council was called the " Witen- 
agemote," or" assembly of wise men." It finally became 
very powerful ; so much so, that even the king found it 
prudent to adopt its advice, and did not dare to act con- 
trary to it. 

As time advanced, the English towns grew in size and 
Growth of importance. The country people flocked in and 
towns. dwelt in the settled places ; villages swelled 
into thriving cities, which were made secure by thick walls 
and towers. Each shire or county had its sheriff ap- 
pointed by the king, the duties of the sheriff being to 
maintain order and enforce the law. Each shire 
and town, too, had its council of wise men, cor- 
responding on a small scale with the Witenagemote, which 
made rules and regulaiions for the locality, dispensing 
justice, and seeing to it that the lawc were carried out. 
The chief executive officer of the town was called the 
" alderman ; " w^ho presided over the town councils just 
as the sheriff did over those of the shire. Thus the 
people became more and more bound together 
by the ties of common interest and mutual 
protection. They ceased to live apart, as rival and jealous 
family clans, and came to have a feeling of pride and 
loyalty towards the community in which they dwelt. 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 35 

And how did the English Uve in those early days ? 
What did they eat and drink ; how clothe them- 

Domestic 

selves; what amusements did they have; what manners 
arts and trades did they practise ? The richer 
people lived in much greater comfort than did their 
ancestors of a century before. For the most part their 
houses were wooden, and were plain and unpretending 
on the outside ; but, within, the houses of the nobles and 
well-to-do freemen were comfortably and even handsomely 
furnished. They were hung with richly embroidered 
curtains, and provided with heavy carved chairs and 
tables, which were sometimes decorated with gold and 
silver. They drank from horns and golden cups, but used 
no forks. As for their food, the richer people ate wheat 
bread, and the poor, bread made of barley, poo^ ^^^ 
The English of that time, as now, were fond of '^"'^^• 
beef and mutton, fowls, venison, and all kinds of game ; 
and these they • had in abundance. They were also 
in the habit of eating horses and goats. From the sea 
and the rivers they were supplied with oysters, lobsters, 
and very much the same variety of fish as their descen- 
dants of our own day enjoy. They drank strong ales, and 
a beverage made from barley. Wine had not come into 
general use, though grapes were already cultivated in 
many parts of England. The English had a great 
passion for feasting, and on such occasions often indulged 
themselves to excess. 

The dress of the wealthier classes was expensive, and 
profuse in ornament. The men as well as the Dress and 
women wore a great deal of jewelry, and were ornament. 
fond of displaying their glittering necklaces, rings, 
and bracelets. Their robes and under2:ovvns were of 



36 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

various colors, and were often richly embroidered. These 
garments showed that the arts and trades included 
weavers and spinners, dyers, people very skilful in many 
kinds of embroidery, goldsmiths, and, indeed, artificers in 
all the metals. The amusements of the English of that 
time still for the most part survive. They were then, as 
Hunting uow, lusty huntsmeu, and loved to roam their 
and sports, forests in search of wild beasts and game. They 
were adepts in all out-of-door recreations, and delight- 
ed to take their pleasure in the open air, in spite of 
their damp and gloomy climate. Music and song were 
very early practised, and made a feature of every 

Ballads. . ' , , . ,^, , 

feast or other merry gathering. The harp was 
the favorite instrument ; and the harper, with his heroic 
songs and ballads, singing in rude verse of the deeds of 
heroes and the loves of queens, was warmly greeted 
alike in the earl's great hall, and in the humble villages 
which nestled in the valley below his don>ain. The people 
Amuse- wcrc delighted, too, when a company of jug- 
ments. glcrs, accompanicd, perhaps, by a dancing bear 

or a monkey, came to beguile their hours on the village 
green. 

In those days, the English were exceedingly superstiti- 
ous. They held relics in sacred reverence. They believed, 
supersti- '^^'ith terror, in the existence of witches. They 
tions. attributed sicknesses to the evil influence of 

witches, and thought that witches killed the cattle and 
worked all sorts of mischief. Old women who were 
thought to be witches were cruelly persecuted. A frequent 
way of finding out whether a woman was a witch was to 
throw her into deep water. If she sank, she was con- 
sidered innocent ; if she floated, she was adjudged guilty. 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 37 

Unhappily, those who were thought to be innocent were 
often drowned in the trial Another way of test- Trials of 
ing a supposed witch was to place a row of hot ^itciies. 
ploughshares, at brief intervals, on the ground. The 
prisoner was blindfolded, and compelled to walk across 
them. If she burned her feet in so doing, she was declared 
guilty. There were other trials, such as placing the hand 
in boiling water, or compelling the suspected person to 
hold a hot iron for a certain length of time. If the 
witch was by any of these means convicted, she was put to 
death. 

The English of that time devoutly believed in all sorts 
of signs and portents, and some of their super- g.gns and 
stitions still linger in the rural parts of England, omens. 
They considered some days fortunate, and others the 
reverse. Among their superstitious maxims were these : 
" He who sees the moon at its first appearance will be 
blessed." '' If New Year's comes on a Monday, the winter 
will be harsh." " If a man dreams that he hath a burning 
candle in his hand, good luck will be his." The wonders 
of the heavens were to the people so many mysterious 
signs, betokening good or ill. There v/ere lucky and 
unlucky stars. The appearance of the moon, of the sun, 
and of comets meant something of weal or woe to 
humanity. Any unusual event, or freak or violence of 
nature, was interpreted as being of good or bad omen to 
the community. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE DANISH CONQUEST. 

THE successor of young King Edward, whose mur- 
der has been related, was his half-brother Ethel- 
red ; who, when he began to reign, was only ten years old 
(979). His reign, however, was both a long 
and an unfortunate one. Ethelred was weak, 
cowardly, and totally unfitted to govern his subjects. He 
had scarcely come to the throne before the Danes resumed 
their incursions upon English soil. They invaded the 
southern coast, and spread desolation through Thanet and 
Chester. Then they appeared in Somerset and Essex, 
„^ ^ fio-htinn; and plunderins^ as was their wont. In 

The Danes & » 1 & 

again are a great battle at Maldon, where the English were 
gallantly led by a brave earl named Bertnoth, 
and fought like lions and heroes, the Danes were victor- 
ious and completely routed their foes. Then the feeble 
king, who was anything but warlike, bethought him to buy 
peace from the invaders. He offered the chief who had 
been victorious at IMaldon the then large sum of ten 
thousand jDOunds. 

The Danes accepted it, and for a little while left Ethel- 
red and his subjects at peace. But as soon as the money 
had been squandered, back came the Danes again. The 
English sometimes tried to meet and repel them, and at 

38 



THE DANISH CONQUEST. 39 

Other times again resorted to the miserable expedient of 
buying them off. Unhappily not only was the king a 
vacillating, cowardly man, but the English had few or 
no valiant generals to lead them to victory. Gradually 
the country was overrun with the persistent Danes. 
London alone, which had even then grown to be a gjege of 
populous and flourishing city, held out bravely ^o^^don. 
against the northern invaders. Four times was London 
besieged by the Danes during Ethelbert's reign ; and each 
time the assailants were forced to retire discomfited from 
before its w^alls. 

Ethelred at last formed a plan to get rid of the Danes, 
which was as cowardly and cruel as it was unsuccessful. 
He ^rave orders that, on a certain day, the „, 

f ' -" Slaughter 

English everywhere should fall upon the Danes of the 
who were peacefully settled in various parts of 
the country, and assassinate them. The king's order was 
eagerly obeyed. On the same day, thousands of Danes, 
men, women and children, were murdered in cold blood. 
This ferocious act of Ethelred was destined to result in 
the loss of his throne, and the final triumph of the Danes 
over all England. Among the victims of the massacre 
was a sister of Swend, who was at that time King of 
Denmark. She and her husband and only son were killed 
on the dav of the sreneral butchery. Swend was 

° -' The ven- 

an able and warlike king. No sooner had he geance of 
heard of his sister's violent death, than he 
resolved to avenge her. He sent a large body of Danes 
to England, who landed in Kent, took Canterbury, made 
a prisoner of the archbishop, and " shamefully murdered 
him." The next year Swend, accompanied by his young 
son Canute, himself crossed the sea with a fleet, composed 



40 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

of five noble ships adorned with rich gilding and carving. 
Capture of Hc landed with a large and well-equipped army, 
London. ^j-^^ advanccd upon London. The capital, after 
an obstinate resistance, fell into his hands ; and soon 
all England had been subdued to his prowess. 

King Ethelred had married Emma, the sister of the 
Duke of Normandy. Normandy was that part of France 
which had been conquered and settled by the North- 
Etheired In 'i^en, just as the Saxons, and then the Danes, 
Normandy, j^^^ subducd and had settled in England. The 
Northmen, indeed, were of the same race and country 
as the Danes and the Saxons ; and, like these, the North- 
men in France had become Christians. The Duke of 
Normandy was a vassal of the French king, but was still 
a very powerful and almost independent pringe. When 
Swend's conquest of the English was complete, Ethelred 
found an asylum, with his wife and son, in the dominions 
of his Norman brother-in-law. But Swend's period of rule 
in England was a very brief one. His death, the very year 
after his conquest (1014), is said to have happened in a 
strano^e wav. Swend seems to have had for 

Swend's ° 

strange somc rcasou a special hatred to the memory 
of St. Edmund, the story of whose murder has 
been told. He demanded a heavy tribute from the abbey 
which had been built in the saint's honor at Bury St. 
Edmunds. The tribute having been refused, Swend set 
out with some troops, with the avowed intention of burn- 
ing the sacred edifice. As he was riding along the road, 
of a sudden he thought he saw the spirit of St. Edmund, in 
full armor, coming to put him to death. *' Help, soldiers," 
he cried to his men, "St. Edmund is coming to kill me! '' 
He fell from his horse, in terror and died that very night. 




SWEXD'S FIA'E NOBLE SHIPS. — Page 



THE DANISH CONQUEST. 4 1 

SwencFs death opened the way to Ethelred's return. 
He promptly came back from Normandy, and Return of 
was greeted with an ardent welcome from his ^theired. 
English subjects. He was their king; and, in spite of 
his faults and weaknesses, they were rejoiced to receiv'e 
him back again. Ethelred, indeed, showed more courage 
and character after his return than ever before. He 
summoned the Witenagemote, raised an army, and pre- 
pared to dislodo^e the Danes from their hold ^^ ^ 

^ ^ The Danes 

upon the country. Canute, the son of Swend, under 

... 11 , ,., Canute. 

was a young man of spirit, intellect, and warlike 
energy. Resolved to recover the dominion which his 
father had established over the English, he soon appeared 
off the coast with a formidable fleet. Once more the 
conflict raged between the rival aspirants for the English 
crown. In the midst of it, Ethelred died ; and now the 
Witenagemote was compelled to elect Canute the Dane 
king in his stead. 

But Canute was not destined to retain the crown 
without a struo'Sfle. In voung Edmund, Ethel- ^ 

oo ' o ' Canute's 

red's son, who is known in history as " Edmund struggle for 
Ironside," the English had still a resolute and 
valiant chief. The patriotic citizens of London rejected 
Canute's claim, and chose Edmund as king. London 
successfully resisted three assaults by the Danish prince ; 
and Edmund went forth to confront him on the battle- 
field. The war raged for a few months furiously. Six 
desperate battles were fought between the royal rivals. 
The valor and prowess of Edmund recalled the 

Defeats his 

days of England's great warrior kings, and at rival, Ed- 
first he repulsed Canute on several hotly-con- ^^" 
tested fields. In one of these battles the two 



42 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

young kings met face to face. Edmund, raising aloft his 
heavy sword, brought it down upon Canute's shield, and 
split it into two parts. The sixth battle decided once for 
all the fate of England. At first the Danes were almost 
driven from the field, and the English seemed sure of a de- 
cisive victory. But Edric, one of the English earls, at this 
critical moment deserted Edmund's standard. The Danes 
turned from their flight, rushed upon their foes, and 
at last completely routed them. 

The result of this victory of Canute was, that the two 
England is kiugs agreed to divide the English realm be- 
bLTween twccu them. To Edmund was given the over- 
them. kingship, and the eastern and southern portion 

of the island. Canute assumed the sovereignty of the 
Marchland and Northumberland. The river Thames was 
the boundary of the two kingdoms. In token of this 
settlement, Edmund and Canute exchanged their cloaks 
and swords, warmly embraced each other, and took a 
solemn oath to be friends and allies as long as they lived. 
But the arrangement w^as of short duration. Edmund, 
though young, of gigantic stature and almost superhuman 
strength, died suddenly within a year after his treaty with 
Canute. It was thought that he was slain by the same 
Canute be- pcrfidious carl, Edric, who had deserted him in 
comesking. ^j^^ f^^^^ battle with the Danes. However this 
may have been, the death of Edmund left the whole of 
England at Canute's mercy ; and he now became its 
undisputed sovereign (1017). 



CHAPTER VIII. 

CANUTE AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 

CANUTE was not only a brave and skilful warrior, but 
a wise statesman. He was short of stature, but was 
very strong and lithe of body. He had been Canute as a 
baptized into the Christian Church, and had statesman, 
become very much devoted to its creed and ceremonies. 
He had a taste for music and singing, and was him- 
self a poet. When he at last found himself the undis- 
puted king of all England, he resolved to govern his 
new subjects to the best of his ability. There were many 
colonies of Danes, as we know, scattered through the 
island, especially along the coasts ; and it might have 
been expected that Canute, himself a Dane, would now 
show his fellow countrymen especial favor. Instead of 
this, he was kind to the English, and devoted himself ear- 
nestly to the task of winning their affection. He He wins 
set English earls over the various provinces, and ^^^°'' ^*^ 

° i ' the Eng- 

chose two Englishmen, Godwin and Leofric, as ijsh. 
his most trusted advisers. Before he had long been king, 
he sent to Normandy for Ethelred's widow, Queen Emma ; 
and although she was some years older than himself, he 
married her and restored her again to the throne from 
which she had once been driven. 

43 



44 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

At first Canute did some harsh and cruel things. He 
„ . sent the two infant children of Edmund Ironside 

Banishes 

th3 chii- to his half-brother, who was then King of Sweden, 

dren of Ed- . , , i i • i i r i 

mund Iron- HI the hope that he might put them out oi the 
^''*®' way. But the King of Sweden spared the lives 

of the little princes, and sent them for safety into Hungary. 
Canute also caused the perfidious Edric, who had deserted 
Edmund Ironside, and had perhaps murdered him, to be 
executed. This Edric was a crafty, treacherous man, and 
the people were not sorry when Canute put an end to him. 
In the early part of his reign, too, Canute pursued several 
warlike enterprises. Though King of England, he had 
retained the crown of Denmark, which he had inherited 
His exploits from his father, Swend. He now invaded Nor- 
in Norway y^r^y clrovc out its ruler, and himself assumed the 

and Scot- - ' 

land. Norwegian crown. He also went to Scotland, 

forced its ruler to do homage to him as over-king, and re- 
ceived the allegiance of the Scottish thanes. Among 
the thanes who came to acknowledge Canute as their ruler, 
was Macbeth, of whom we read in Shakespeare's tragedy. 
Canute thus became a mighty sovereign, and wore the 
crowns of four crreat kino:doms. A Ions; interval 

Ruler of . . 

four king- of pcacc and prosperity succeeded his conquest 
°°^^' of Norway and Scotland. Order reigned through- 

out the English realm. Canute made many wise and good 
laws, and all who did unjustiy, or who committed violent 
crimes, were severely punished. The farmers and mer- 
chants were protected in the tranquil pursuit of their in- 
dustries, and the king held in restraint the fierce passions 
General ^f the great lords. It was, for years, a very 
prosperity, ^^ppy q^sl for the Euglish, who were now fast 
growing into a great, rich, and powerful nation. All this 



CANUTE AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 45 

time the Church maintained its influence among the Eng- 
hsh, and continued to be the guardian of learning and the 
educator of the people. Happily, King Canute, though a 
Dane, was himself a Christian. He gave many costly gifts 
to abbeys and monasteries ; restored and decorated the 
shrine of St. Edmund at Glastonbury; built several 
churches ; and in many u'ays befriended the monks, by 
whom, in return, he was greatly honored and beloved. 

So devoted a Christian, indeed, was Canute, that twice 
he made the difficult and dangerous pilgrimage Canute a 
from England to Rome. It was a very different ann^^Ju- 
journey then from what it is in these days of rail- s'^^"'- 
ways and steamers. Pilgrims were often attacked, robbed, 
and murdered in the lonely valleys of the Alps, by bands 
of robber mountaineers ; and so severe were the hardships 
encountered on the way, that sometimes travellers died 
from exhaustion, Canute, however, undertook the journey, 
with the double purpose of confessing to the Pope and re- 
ceiving absolution for his sins, and of accomplishing good 
for his subjects. He carried splendid presents to the 
Pope, who received him with much honor and respect. 
While in Rome, Canute met and talked with Meets the 
the German emperor and other potentates, by fb^'Km-'^ 
whom he was treated as an equal. He wrote a peror. 
long letter from Rome to his people, in which he de- 
scribed his journey, and promised that upon his return 
home he would rule them wisely and justly. And this 
promise he faithfully kept to the day of his death. 

Many anecdotes are related of this good and wise 
ruler. One day, wearied with the flatteries of Canute and 
his courtiers, who kept saying that there was ^^® ^'*^®®- 
nothing which his power could not achieve, he caused 



46 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

his throne to be set on the seashore. As the tide rose 
ever higher and higher towards his feet, he commanded it 
to recede. The tide rolled on, however, and presently the 
waves were dashing around the throne, and splashing over 
the king's robes. Whereupon Canute stood up, and, turn- 
ing to his fawning courtiers, said, " Though kings are 
mighty and rule wide realms, yet will not the seas obey 
them ; therefore to God alone be honor and praise ; for 
He rules all things, and the wind and the seas obey Him." 
After that, he would never wear his royal crown again ; 
but caused it to be placed on the head of Christ's image 
in Winchester Cathedral. Another story shows 

Perils of -' 

poets under that Cauutc, thougli a great king, was some- 
what vain. A minstrel, who had written a song 
in the king's praise, came to sing it to Canute while he 
was holding a court of justice. Canute would not post- 
pone his business, but kept on hearing and adjudging 
the complaints of the suitors. At last the minstrel be- 
came impatient, and asked the king to pause and hear 
his song, which was very short. Canute thereupon turned 
to him indignantly and said, " Are you not ashamed 
to write a short poem about me ? Unless by dinner to- 
morrow you bring a poem of over thirty verses in my 
praise, you shall lose your head." The minstrel hurried 
away, and next day, sure enough, he appeared with a poem 
of the length which Canute had demanded, and received 
therefor a generous sum of money. 

Canute died at the early age of forty, having reigned 
Harold eighteen years. He was succeeded (1035) by 
Harefoot. Harold, his son, who was called " Harold Hare- 
foot," because he could run very swiftly. He was quite 
unworthy of his wise and pious father. Instead of cherish- 




CANUTE REPROVING HIS COURTIERS.- Page 46. 



CANUTE AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 4/ 

ing the Church, he scoffed at it, and showed his contempt 
for it in many ways. Fortunately for England, Harold 
reigned but four years, and, dying, left the throne to his 
half-brother, Hardicanute (1040). It will be remembered 
that Canute had married Emma, the sister of the Duke of 
Normandy, and the widow of Canute's predecessor, King 
Ethelred. Hardicanute was the eldest son by this second 
marriage. But Emma already had two sons by Ethelred, 
named Alfred and Edward. Harold Harefoot had Alfred 
put to death with great cruelty ; but Hardicanute treated 
the remaining son of Ethelred, Edward, with kindness, 
and adopted him as his successor to the throne. Hardi- 
canute at first gave promise of being a good ruler, jj^^.^. 
But he proved to be even more tyrannical than Canute's 
Harold had been. He governed his people 
severely, and imposed burdensome taxes upon them 
which they could ill bear. In some places the people 
rose in revolt against this grievous imposition. At Wor- 
cester two of the king's tax-gatherers were slain. Hardi- 
canute, in retaliation for this act, caused ^^'orcester to be 
ravaged and burned by his soldiers. Hardicanute reigned 
but two years. One day, at a great wedding- his ignoble 
feast, he drank to excess ; and as he was stand- ^'^^■ 
ing up to drink yet more, he suddenly fell to the ground, 
and died without uttering a word. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE END OF THE SAXON DYNASTY. 

IN Edward, who succeeded to the throne (1042), the 
English had once more for their ruler a descend- 
Edward a ^^^^ o^ their Saxon kings. The Danish line, 
Saxon king, founded by Canute, had become extinct. Once 
more a scion of the family of Egbert sat upon the throne. 
Through his mother, however, Edward was of French, or 
Norman, blood ; and he had been reared from childhood 
in Normandy. Thus he grew^ up with the tastes, feelings, 
and manners of a Norman rather than an Englishman. 
No sooner had he ascended the throne than he began to 
show in many ways his preference for his Norman friends. 
Favors the Many of thcse foreigners crossed into Eng- 
Normans. land, and were received with especial favor at 
Edward's court. The king gave them lands and offices, 
and he appointed Norman priests to the bishoprics of 
London and Dorchester, one of whom afterwards became 
Archbishop of Canterbury, and thus the head of the Eng- 
lish Church. This office was regarded by the people as 
the highest dignity in the realm, next to the crown ; and 
the selection of a Norman to fill it gave the English great 
offence. 

Edward's partiality for the Normans, indeed, made 
The power his English subjects very angry. The ablest 
win,^' ° ' ^^^^^ most powerful lord then living in England 

48 



THE END OF THE SAXON DYNASTY. 49 

was Earl Godwin. He had long taken an active part in 
tlie affairs of the reahn. He was suspected by Edward 
of having had something to do with the killing of young 
Alfred, Edward's brother ; but this was never fully 
proved. Earl Godwin was intensely English in his feel- 
ings. He hated the foreigners who came to enrich them- 
selves on English soil. He was looked up to by the 
English as their leader and protector. King Edw^ard, in 
order to conciliate his English subjects, married Earl 
Godwin's daughter, iLdith, a young and very beautiful 
woman ; and Earl Godwin had done much to make 
Edward's patlnvay to the throne an easy one. a king- 
The earl had two sons. One, Harold, was "^^^^r. 
brave, generous, and much beloved. The other, Tostig, 
was cruel and tyrannical, and was very much disliked by 
the people. 

It was this great Earl Godwin and his sons who stirred 
up the English and gave the signal of revolt against the 
Normans who had been brought over and petted by the 
king. An altercation between Eustace, a Norman prince, 
and some of the people at Dover, formed the pretext for 
a rising, Godwin hastily gathered a force of the indignant 
English, and the king hastened to lead his troops Godwin re- 
against the rebel earl. But when the two bec^irTJf 
armies came in sight of each other, Godwin's ^" ouuaw. 
men weakened and fell away from him. The earl and his 
sons were forced to fly for their lives across the seas, 
and were declared outlaws, Edward also banished Queen 
Edith, his wife, on account of her father's treason. So 
the Normans continued to enjoy their wealth and power, 
and flocked across the Channel in greater numbers than 
ever. 



50 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

After a while the Duke of Normandy himself came 
in splendid state to pay a visit to his cousin, the 

William of i. , i • n-i, t^^ t i i- i ^ i i 

Normandy English King. 1 hc English little thought, when 
Edward'"^ they saw this tall and noble looking young man 
of twenty-three passing with his gay retinue 
along their roads, that he would one day not only be 
their ruler, but would completely change the destinies of 
the nation. William of Normandy was very ambitious 
and very bold in war. As he saw the prosperity and 
wealth of the English, he resolved that he would some 
day try to win the English crown for himself. He had a 
powerful influence over King Edward ; and he afterwards 
declared that, while he was on this visit to England, 
Godwin re- Edward promiscd to make William his heir, 
appears. William had scarcely returned to Normandy 
when Godwin and his sons landed once more in England, 
collected a large body of men and a goodly fleet, and 
advanced on London. The king hurriedly gathered his 
troops and ships ; and soon the opposing forces found 
themselves face to face. 

But now the wisdom and patriotism of the king's coun- 
cillors averted the spectacle of civil war. Instead of 
fighting, the king and the earl came to terms and made 
He is re- pcacc with cach other. Godwin and his sons 
stored. were restored to their earldoms and former 
power. Many of the Normans were deprived of their 
offices and estates, and were banished from the country. 
Among these was the Archbishop of Canterbury, who made 
all haste to return to his native land. Earl Godwin only 
lived a year after thus triumphing over the foreigners 
he so heartily detested. It is rplated that while he was 
revelling at an Easter feast with King Edward, the latter 



THE END OF THE SAXON DYNASTY. 5 I 

again accused him of the murder of Prince Alfred. God- 
win rose from his chair, stretched aloft one hand, and 
with the other held a piece of bread to his 
mouth. "May this morsel of bread be my last," 
he cried, " if I had any share in that bloody deed ! " He 
attempted to swallow the bread, but it choked him ; and 
falling to the ground, he died in agony. 

Godwin's brave and brilliant son Harold succeeded 
to his father's power and popularity. The king Godwin's 
liked and trusted him, and sent him to fight ^°''' Harold, 
the Welsh, who had risen in revolt under a mountain 
chief named Griffith. Harold marched into the fastnesses 
of Wales, and attacked the rebels with such vigor and 
courage that the revolt was soon crushed, and Griffith 
himself was killed. Soon after, Harold was at sea with 
his brother, when he was shipwrecked on the French 
coast. He was at once seized by Count Guv, 

1 1 1 r 1 • 1 -1 -^ He is en- 

the lord or the region, and carried at once to trapped by 
Duke William of Normandy. William knew how 
much the English loved Harold, and availed himself of 
the chance w^hich had put Harold in his power, to further 
his own scheme of obtaining the English crown. So he 
made Harold solemnly swear that he would do all that he 
could to make William king after Edward's death, and 
then he set him free. 
' Meanwhile King Edward had sad need of Harold at 
home. He had made Harold's younger brother, Tostig, 
lord of Northumberland. It was not long before Tostig's 
overbearing temper incited the Northumbrians to rebel 
against his rule. So Edward sent Harold thither Harold's 
to aid Testis: in restoring: order. But Harold's dealings 

^ ^ with Tos- 

generous nature revolted against forcing a tyrant tig. 



52 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

upon the people, though that tyrant was his own brother. 
When he found that the Northumbrians would not submit, 
but had chosen another earl to govern them, he refused 
to aid Tostig, who was forced to make all haste to leave 
the country. This conduct of Harold made him greatly 
beloved and honored in Northumberland. 

King Edward was now fast approaching the end of his 

reign. His rule had been, on the whole, a wise and gentle 

one. His most prominent trait was his exceed. 

Edward's i i • 

piety and ing picty and devotion to the Church, and he is 
justice. i^nown in history as "Edward the Confessor." 
He is said to have been very handsome in person, with 
long white hair and beard. Although at most times mild 
and cheerful, he was quick-tempered and easily angered. 
He relieved his people of some oppressive imposts, and 
generally governed them justly and mildly. As he per- 
ceived that his end was approaching, he conceived a great 
desire to leave some pious monument behind him, to per- 
petuate his memory among his subjects. So he caused 
He builds Westminster Abbey to be built on a spot which 
ol^^^est^/ was then a small island at the western extremity 
minster. of Londou. But vcry little remains, in the pres- 
ent abbey, of the original structure ; but there may be seen 
the beautiful shrine of Edward the Confessor, within which 
the remains of the good king lie. 

Thouo;h a descendant of the Saxon line was still livinc: 
in the person of Edgar, the grandson of Edmund Ironside, 
Harold be- Edward the Confessor chose Harold to be his 
comes successor. Harold was not of roval blood, be- 

king. 

ing the son of Earl Godwin, a subject. But 
Edgar, the next heir of the royal line, was of feeble mind 
and body ; and the English wanted an able, vigorous, and 



THE END OF THE SAXON DYNASTY. 53 

warlike king. Harold was beloved and respected through- 
out the land. So he was designated to succeed the now 
dying monarch. Edward the Confessor passed away on 
the very day that his noble sanctuary, Westminster Ab- 
bey, was completed. He never entered it except to be 
buried. As he lay dying, he said, " I hope that I am pass- 
ing from the land of the dead into that of the living." 
On the day of the good Confessor's death, the He is 
Witenagemote confirmed his choice of Harold as ^^^^^^^^ ^^ 

o the ne-w 

king ; and Harold was the first of the long line abbey, 
of English sovereigns who have been crowned, in great 
state and splendor, within the walls of Westminster Ab- 
bey. 



K 



CHAPTER X. 

THE NORMAN CONQUEST, 

ING HAROLD, though not of royal blood, was be- 
loved by the English for his courage, wisdom, and 
kind and merciful temper. Yet his reign [1066] lasted 
King less than a year, and from its very beginning was 

Harold. attended by turmoil and disaster. When a pris- 
oner in Normandy, Harold had solemnly sworn to Duke 
William that he would support William's claim to the Eng- 
lish throne. This oath, however, had been taken under 
compulsion, and when Harold found himself upon the 
Harold's throuc hc was resolved to retain it. Duke Wil- 
broken |j^-^j-,-j Jq^^ j-j^ [[^q in remindinsf Harold of his 

promise. ^ 

oath, and demanding its fulfilment. Harold re- 
turned a prompt and brave reply. He told the Duke that 
the oath had been wrung from him by violence ; that, in- 
deed, he had had no right to dispose of the English throne ; 
and that, now that the English had with one voice chosen 
him to rule over them, he would only give up his crown 
with his life. 

The enraged Duke of Normandy promptly made ready 
Anjrer of to asscrt his claim to the English throne by 
the Duke of fQ^-ce Qf arms. His first step was to seek for 

Normandy. '■ 

and obtain the sanction and aid of the Pope of 
Rome, and to secure allies among the other princes of 
Europe. The Pope responded favorably to his appeal. 

54 



THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 55 

He sent him, with his blessing, a consecrated banner and 
a lock of St. Peter's hair. Many of the princes, who 
feared and respected William for his martial prowess and 
resolute will, gave him support. Among those who inter- 
ested themselves in his cause was Tostig, Harold's own 
brother. Tostig, after having been expelled from North- 
umberland, fled to Norway and formed a close Tostig's 
friendship with the king of that country. He har- ^^^^*- 
bored a deep resentment against Harold, because Harold 
had refused to sanction his tyrannies in Northumberland ; 
and now that Duke William was about to attack Harold, 
Tostig saw that the moment for his revenge had come. 
While Duke William, therefore, was busy gathering togeth- 
er a large army, Tostig, with his friend the king Treachery 
of Norway, took time by the forelock, invaded °^ Tostig. 
northern England, besieged the city of York, and carried 
his ravages far and wide. In vain did Harold try to be- 
come reconciled to his treacherous brother. When he sent 
a messenger to Tostig, the latter asked what Harold would 
give the king of Norway. " Seven feet of English ground 
for a grave ! " was the envoy's proud and brave reply. 

Harold hastily marched northward to give battle to 
Tostig. The brothers met at Stamford Bridge. Battle of 
Harold led the forefront of his troops, and, after Stamford 

^ ' ' Bridge. 

a bloody conflict, overcame the invaders. His 
triumph was complete. The Norwegian army was cut to 
pieces, and both Tostig and the Norwegian king fell on 
the field, mortally wounded. But Harold and his valiant 
English had little time to spend in rejoicing over their sig- 
nal victory. Scarcely had the battle ended, when messen- 
gers arrived in hot haste from the south, with the tidings 
that the Normans had already landed on the coast and 



56 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

were advancing northward into the interior. Harold made 
all haste to encounter this new and far more formidable 
foe. He summoned a fresh army, called his earls to his 
support, and promptly set out to meet the proud Norman 
Duke wii- ^^^'^^ ^^^^ warriors. Duke William had landed at 
liam lands Pevenscv, had built a wooden fortress at Has- 

in England. -^ ' 

tings, and thence had salhed out to plunder and 
lay waste the country round about. Unhappily for Harold, 
the earls Edwin and Morcar, who were jealous of him, re- 
fused to come to his aid with their vassals ; so that his army, 
on the eve of his struggle with the Normans, was smaller 
and weaker than he had confidently hoped it would be. 

Harold took up his position at Senlac, not far from 
The English Hastings, in an orchard which crowned a sloping 
position. i-jiii^ jj^ ^j-jg pi^^jj^ below tiie English could distinct- 
ly see William and his valiant and gaily attired Normans. 
With Harold were his two brothers, Gurth and Leofwin. 
Gurth urged the king to lay waste the country, so that the 
Normans could not subsist thereon, to return to London, 
gather a larger army, and then confront the enemy. But 
Harold proudly refused, declaring that it did not become 
The night ^ l^i"g to turn his back upon his foes. The night 
before the bcforc the battle the English camp resounded 

battle. ° ' 

with music and merrymaking. But the Normans 
spent the dark hours in prayer and preparation. At dawn^ 
the rival hosts began to move towards each other. The 
En"-lish excelled with their battle-axes and broadswords; 
the Normans as bowmen and in horsemanship. Harold 
fortified the hill with a rough fence of stakes ; and dispos- 
ing his men within this hastily constructed fort, he awaited 
the Norman onset. 

The Normans advanced, William and his brother in their 



THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 5/ 

midst, their coats of mail glistening in the rays of the rising 
sun. They were mounted on swift and spirited steeds. When 
they drew close to the English, a Norman minstrel The conflict 
in the front of the cavalcade suddenly threw his ^^gi^^. 
sword aloft, and began to sing loudly a Norman war-song. 
This was the signal of attack. The Normans threw them- 
selves upon the palisade, and again and again sought to 
ride in upon the English. But the sturdy soldiers of 
Harold wielded their battle-axes with deadly effect. The 
Normans were driven down the slopes, and, for a moment, 
victory seemed within Harold's grasp. But William again 
rallied his knights, and once more led them up the hill. 
The two armies now came to close quarters. Raging of 
William slew Gurth with his own sword. At last ^^° ^^"^^• 
the Normans broke through a part of the high fence. Then 
William resorted to stratagem. He ordered his men to 
retreat, as if overwhelmed. They descended the hill ; the 
hot-headed English rushed pell-mell after them. The con- 
flict now raged in the open field. 

The battle might have been long doubtful but for a 
crowning disaster which befell the English. The brave and 
undaunted Harold fell, struck by an arrow in the eye. He 
fell beneath his standard, wounded to the death. When 
the Normans saw that the Saxon king was dying, they 
hurled themselves with fierce ardor upon the dis- Triumph 
mayed and disheartened Enjrlish. A Norman °^ ^^^ 

_ ^ Normans. 

knight slew Harold as he lay drawing his last 
breath. The English slowly retreated, still fighting brave- 
ly ; but the day was lost to them, and that night William 
encamped on the field of battle. 

The death of Harold, and the complete discomfiture of 



58 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

his valiant arm)^, put England at the mercy of the Norman 
invader. There was no longer any force strong enough to 
resist his advance. The conqueror lost no time in follow- 
ing up his triumph. He led his army along the southern 
coast to Dover: then along the banks of the Thames to 
Duke wii- Londou. Everywhere the people were forced to 
liam enters submit to him. Hc entered London at the head 

Loudon. 

of his armored knights, and was duly crowned 
king of England in Westminster Abbey. An incident hap- 
pened at the coronation, which nearly caused a desperate 
conflict between the English and the Normans on the very 
first day of William's reign. The bishops, as they stood at 
William the Abbey altar, asked the assembled multitude 
accepted whether they would accept William as king. The 

as king. -' ^ *-* 

people responded with a loud cry of assent. The 
Norman soldiers outside the church supposed that the 
noise meant that the people \vithin had revolted against 
their lord. So they began to set fire to the neighboring 
houses. The people ran out, and for a moment a bloody 
conflict seemed certain. But the mistake was soon ex- 
plained, and the ceremony was peacefully brought to an 
end. 

William found it no easy matter to bring the English 
completely under his rule. In various parts of the country 
the authority of the foreigner was long resisted. In the 
English re- ^orth of England, Edwin and Morcar, Harold's 
^°^*^^^^^'^^* brothers, raised the standard of revolt. The 

William. ' 

southern English for a while supported the claim 
to the throne of Edgar, the grandson of Edmund Ironside ; 
but Edgar was of feeble mind, and in the course of time 
went to reside at William's court as a pensioned depen- 



THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 59 

dent. The Danes joined arms with the English in North- 
umberland, but William met the allies at York and com- 
pletely routed them. The Norman conqueror thus over- 
came, one after another, the attempts made to resist his 
rule, and, long before he died, became the absolute and 
undisputed king of all England. 



CHAPTER XI. 

PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 

DURING the period between the landing of Julius 
Caesar on the shores of Britain, and the victory of 
William the Norman near Hastings, the island was con- 
quered, as w^e have seen, four times, by four different in- 
The four vadcrs. First the Romans came, and for a long 
conquests, ^yi-^iig established themselves in the country, hold- 
ing it always by military force. They erected walls, fort- 
resses and highways, built towns, and introduced the 
Christian faith. But they finally left Britain without hav- 
ing planted any settlements of Romans, or having greatly 
modified the character of the people. Then came the Eng- 
Engiish, bsh — the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes — who not 
Normans'"** ^"^^ conqucrcd the land, but permanently occu- 
pied it, driving out the Britons and becoming 
themselves the inhabitants of the island. Next the Danes, 
near relatives by race of the English, invaded the country, 
made settlements side by side with the English, for a 
while gave England Danish kings, and became gradually 
merged into the mass of English citizens. Finally the 
Normans landed and conquered, and imposed themselves 
upon the nation as the ruling race. The Norman con- 
quest was the last. The descendants of William have 
ruled in England from that time to the present. 

60 



J 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 6l 

It was the second conquest, however — that of the Eng- 
lish — which really settled the character, language, and 
destinies of the insular nation. They were the real basis 
of the nation, and they absorbed the other two supremacy 
races — the Danes and the Normans — who of English 

character. 

after them ■ conquered the country. It was 
the English type which survived every attack and dan- 
ger, and it is the English type which prevails to this 
day. Yet the Normans in some sort modified that type, 
and made some changes in the language. The English, 
while they were fond of freedom, and had a great respect 
for law and order, were coarse, brutal, self-indulgent 
and uncouth. The Normans, on the other hand, Traits of the 
were spirited and chivalrous, bold and enterpris- Normans, 
ing in war, and polished and elegant in manners. They 
mingled much more with the rest of the world than the 
English, and were more accomplished in worldly graces 
and talents. They liked to travel, and were restless and 
ambitious of adventure. When they came and settled 
among the English, therefore, they infused into the people 
more refinement and activity, and added to the English 
qualities of industry, love of liberty, and persistency, the 
Norman traits of enthusiasm, ambition, and polish. 

The Romans had not planted their language among the 
Britons ; but the Normans brought with them a language to 
a large degree derived from the Latin, and blended with the 
Saxon tongue many new and graceful words and phrases. 
Thus the English language became a combination changes in 
of Saxon and Norman, or, as we should say now, of ^^'^s^'^se. 
German and French, and combined much of the strength 
and beauty of both. It has been well pointed out that in 
this way there came to be often two words — a Saxon and a 



62 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

Norman word — to express the same thing; such as "truth'* 
and ".veracity," "heavenly" and "celestial." Another 
Norman interesting fact is, that while most of the words 
and Engush sinrnifvins: hlsih and loftv things, such as " rovaltv," 

words. o J & ir^ ^ O ' . . ? 

"palace," "castle," "sovereign," came from the 
Norman, the words expressing humble and homely things, 
like "home," "farm," "hearth," were of Saxon origin. 

The Normans for a long period used their power over 
the subjected English with cruelty. Yet they did a great 
deal, in many ways, to improve and elevate the people. 
Government William made the nation more completely one 
of William I. ^j^.^^ j^ j-,^j^ g^,gj. \)QQY] beforc. The power of 

the under-kings fell before his might. He subjected 
the influence of the great nobles to his iron will. He 
made England respected and feared abroad as it had 
never been under its native kings. It was in the early 
period of Norman ascendancy, too, that the "feudal sys- 
tem " took root so deeply in England, that some vestiges of 
it still remain in the England of our own time. With William 
came and settled in England a host of Norman nobles, 
knights, soldiers, and gentlemen. To these he gave many 
houses, manors, and lands, all over the country, which he 
ruthlessly took from their native owners. He turned Eng- 
lish bishops and priests out of their dioceses and j^arishes, 
and gave them to Norman ecclesiastics. He surrounded 
himself with Norman guards and courtiers. After the Nor- 
occupation man lords and soldiers had thus fairly taken 
by th^ "^"^ possession of the land, a multitude of Normans 
Normans, ^f ^ Jowcr class flockcd across the Channel, and 
settled in the English towns and villages. These Nor- 
mans, whether nobles or commoners, one and all treated 
the English as their inferiors. 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 6^ 

The extension of the "feudal system," which had already 
taken some root in England, was one result of the Norman 
conquest. This system regarded the king as The feudal 
owning all the land of the country, and all its ^y^^^^- 
lords as holding the land they occupied under him. 
The lesser lords in like manner held their land under the 
greater lords, and the farmers and small «occupiers in turn 
held under the lesser lords. So it was that every man 
who had any land at all held it under some one above 
him. The conditions under which the land was so held 
were, that the king should protect and defend the lords, 
and the lords those who held land under them : and that, 
on the other hand, the "vassals," as those who Lords and 
held under a superior were called, should fight ^^^sais. 
for and aid their lords whenever called upon. Thus the 
chief service which the vassal owed his lord, and the lord 
the king, was military service. There was no standing 
army in England. The king had, at best, but a few com- 
panies of guards. So, when a war broke out, the king 
called upon the lords to bring their quotas of men, and the 
lords in like manner commanded their vassals to gather 
together, arm themselves, and join the royal standard. 

The Norman lords, to whom so many great estates had 
been given, rigorously enforced this feudal system. They 
built all through the country strong and lofty Norman 
castles, which served both as fortresses and as nasties, 
residences. These castles were supplied with every appli- 
ance for military defence. They had great towers, with 
mere slits for windows ; around them were dug deep moats, 
which, when the castle was attacked, could be flooded with 
water ; there were prisons where captured enemies were 



64 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

confined ; portcullises completely barred the portals from a 
hostile entrance, and drawbridges enabled the dwellers in 
the castle to cross the moat in times of peace. Sometimes 
the castle was built in two spacious quadrangles, within 
which huts were erected for the lord's attendants. The 
castle usually stood aloft, on an eminence or crag, or on the 
brow of a high hill ; while below nestled the hamlets and 
villages occupied by the lord's vassals. The lord was 
The obiiga- bound to protcct his vassals from all attacks, and 
tionsofthe -J- ^y^^ j-j-g ^^g|^ ^Q settle their differences, punish 

lords. _ ' '^ 

them for their misdemeanors, and generally to 

regulate their affairs. On the other hand, the vassals, at 

the summons of their lord, were bound to abandon their 

work at once, and to follow him to the wars. 

English society, then, as it w^as at the time of the 

Conquest, consisted of the feudal lords and squires at 

English t^'^G head ; then the yeomanry, who were farmers 

society holdinoj undcr the lords: and finally the work- 
under the ^ ' -' 

Normaus. mcu, who owncd no land, but labored for wages. 
Meanwhile, in the towns and cities, the number of trades- 
men was ever increasing with the swelling urban population. 
People more and more fiocked to the thickly settled places 
from the country. A lively trade had already sprung up 
with foreign countries, and, from the time of the coming 
of the Danes, the English had taken to a seafaring life 
more than ever before. So many seaside towns had grown 
Towns and ^'^P ou the coast, and the foundation of English 
villages. supremacy on the ocean was thus laid. The 
church, too, had waxed apace. Every village now had its 
priest and a more or less humble sanctuary ; and very 
soon after the advent of the Normans, the earliest of the 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 65 

splendid cathedrals which may now be seen in England — 
such as those at Durham, Peterborough, and Gloucester — 
were built for the service of the bishops. Monasteries and 
abbeys, too, were erected in many places, whither commu- 
nities of monks retreated, to engage in study and perform 
their pious offices in solitude. 



CHAPTER XII. 

WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

WILLIAM the Conqueror — as the first Norman 
king of England has always been called in his- 
tory — was a man of striking personal appearance, and of 
■William the ^^^^ mental and moral qualities. He was tall 
Conqueror's ^^^ corpulent, with a stern, shaven face and a 

personal '■ 

appearance, very kingly manner. He was exceedingly pow- 
erful of body. He was strong-willed and fierce in tem- 
per. He loved to live in splendor, and to display his royal 
magnificence to the world ; yet was he also greedy and 
avaricious of money. He was bountiful, but inspired fear 
rather than affection. Perhaps the most attractive of his 
personal traits was his ardent and faithful love for his wife. 
Throughout his stormy career, his devotion to the partner 
of his throne was tender and constant. He ruled always 
William's ^vith a resolute hand, and made war valiantly 
vigor of rule, ^j^^^ cruclly. Hc put down rebellions with re- 
lentless vigor, and without pity scourged the people among 
whom rebellion had been stirred up. When he had put 
down the revolt in Northumberland, he scattered his sol- 
diers through the region, and ordered them to burn the 
orchards and villages, and to massacre the inhabitants and 
kill their live-stock. 

This great king, while he gave lands to the Normans, and 
permitted them to build castles and to establish feudalism 

66 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 6/ 

among the people, took good care that they should not be- 
come too powerful. He made every owner of land subjection 
in England take a solemn oath of fidelity to the of the lords 

* -'to the 

crown. He would not allow any lord to hold a vast crown, 
estate in any one district, but, if he wished to reward him, 
he would give him several estates at a distance from each 
other. He restricted the powers of the lords to administer 
justice. When certain of the barons, enraged at William's 
high-handed rule, rebelled against him (1075) ^^^ seized and 
promptly beheaded the Earl of Nottingham, who was their 
chief. William was ardently fond of hunting. Not wniiam's 
finding enough scope for gratifying this passion ^°^® °^^ 
in the royal parks, he seized upon a vast tract of 
land in Hampshire, ninety miles in circumference, and 
caused all the villages, churches, and buildings upon it to 
be destroyed. The inhabitants were driven away to find 
homes where they might. Then the king caused a forest to 
be made ; and here he had ample space for his hunting. 
He planted a preserve for deer, which were his favorite 
game ; and forbade any one to kill the deer or the boars in 
the forest. Whoever did so was deprived of his sight. 
This great pleasure-ground was always afterwards called 
the New Forest. 

William did another thing which, although at the time 
it greatly displeased his English subjects, proved to be of 
lasting service and benefit to the nation. This was to 
cause the " Doomsday Book " to be written. He The Dooms- 
sent officers throughout England to find out the ^^^^ ^°°^- 
condition of the land ; to make a record of the land-own- 
ers, the amount of acres which each held, and the number 
of serfs on each estate ; to set down how much of the land 
was cultivated, how much consisted of meadows or forests, 



6S YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

the number and kind of fisheries, and the population of 
each town, village, and hamlet. These officers in due time 
made their reports, which, collected and arranged, made' up 
the Doomsday Book. This book enabled the king to know 
upon whom to levy his taxes, and how to divide up the 
taxes, so that each should pay his proportionate share. 
But it has had the still greater use of enabling land-owners, 
ever since, to trace the titles of properties, and make se- 
cure their tenures. The Doomsday Book still exists, and 
gives a vivid picture of the state of England in the remote 
time when the stern and masterful Conqueror reigned. 

When William undertook the conquest of England, the 
Pope of Rome had sent him flags which the Pope had 
blessed, and had aided him as far as he could. After Wil- 
Engiandand li^m had bccu somc time on the throne, the Pope 
the Pope. demanded of the King that he should do homage 
to him for the kingdom. This William respectfully but 
stubbornly refused to do. On the contrary, he forbade 
the English bishops to go to Rome and do homage to 
the Pope, and compelled them, as well as the lords, to 
do homage to him instead. Yet, though William thus 
resisted the Pope's demand, he did many things to favor 
William the cliurch at home, to build it up and extend 
favors the ^i-^ influence over the people. He caused cathe- 

Church. 1 r 

drals and monasteries to be erected, gave rich 
lands to monkish orders, and himself regularly attended re- 
ligious services. The wisest counsellor whom he had during 
his reign was a learned and good Italian priest, named 
Lanfranc, whom William made Archbishop of Canterbury. 
William listened to Lanfranc's advice, and implicitly trusted 
him in many affairs of state. 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 69 

Lanfranc devoted himself with all his energy to reform- 
ing the church, and, as far as he could, to bettering the 
condition of the people. He supported the king 
in his refusal to do homage to the Pope. He 
carefully selected good and able Norman priests to be Eng- 
lish bishops and abbots ; and persuaded William to allow 
the bishops to have courts of their own, in which all cases 
relating to the clergy and the rules of the church were 
adjudged. Lanfranc also founded a number of schools, and 
did his utmost to destroy the slave-trade in England. His 
influence was therefore almost wholly beneficial both to 
the church and to the English people. 

In the early part of his reign William paid a visit in 
o:reat splendor to his duchy of Normandv, tak- 

^ ^ ^ . ^ ' William's 

ing with him a large company of bishops and visi 
lords, and making a brilliant display among his 
Norman subjects. He gave a great feast to the Norman no- 
bles, and showod them the gold plate and rich embroidery 
which he had found among the English. But his visits to 
Normandy were afterwards not very frequent. In spite of 
his occasional harshness and cruelty, William retained the 
old English laws and customs, caused the laws to be strict- 
ly enforced, and maintained civil order throughout his 
realm. He protected his humbler subjects from the tyranny 
of the great lords, and so won their gratitude, though he 
was too stern and despotic a ruler to win their affection. 
He imposed grievous taxes, reviving the old " danegeld,'* 
the tax which was formerly exacted to defend 

■^ _ Imposition 

the country from the Danes, who had long since of heavy 

ceased to trouble the English. William combined 

the English system, which consisted of a strong central 



ts to 
Normandy. 



70 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

power, with the Norman system of feudal vassalage, and 
thus created a really great and powerful kingdom. 

William had three sons, Robert, William (called "Rufus," 
William's or the " Red," because of his red hair), and 
sons. Henry. Throughout his rule, the eldest son, 

Robert, was disobedient and rebellious. He claimed the 
right to govern Normandy ; and when the king refused to 
admit this claim, Robert joined hands with the king of 
France and rose in revolt. Queen Matilda, William's wife, 
brought about a temporary reconciliation between her hus- 
band and her son ; but Robert was soon in rebellion 
again, and his conduct cast a dark shadow over- his father's 
later years. William at last became involved in a war 
War with with the Frcnch king. He crossed the Channel 
France. ^^,j,-|-^ |-^jg amiy, and advanced into the country. 
In a fit of rage at some hasty word, he set fire to the town 
of Mantes. As he was riding among the smoking ruins, 
his horse was burned by the hot ashes, and stumbled. The 
heavy -bodied monarch was thrown suddenly forward, and 
was mortally injured. He was carried to Rouen, where, 
perceiving that death was approaching, he made a final dis- 
position of his worldly affairs. 

To Robert, in spite of his unfilial conduct, \\'illiam left 
the duchy of Normandy. He designated his second son, 
William Rufus, as king of England. Stricken, at the last 
hour, by his conscience, he sought to atone for his mis- 
deeds by leaving large sums of money to the poor, ordering 
the release of his prisoners, commanding that the church 
at Mantes should be rebuilt, and bequeathing many of his 
lands to the English cathedrals, churches, and monasteries. 
Death of After lingering for several weeks, the Conqueror 
William I. pjissej away, just as the bell for the early 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 7I 

in a neighboring belfry. He was 
entombed in a beautiful church at Caen, which he him- 
self had caused to be erected ; but it is said that not one 
of his three sons was present at the last rites of their 
great and valiant sire. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

WILLIAM RUFUS, OR THE RED. 

WILLIAM RUFUS, without waiting for his father 
to die, hurried home (1087) to take possession of 
the kingdom which the Conqueror, in his hist hours, had 
■William II., given over to him. WilUam knew that a powerful 
"the Bed." p^rtv in England preferred his brother Robert 
to himself ; and he lost no time in making sure of the 
crown. As soon as he reached England, he repaired to 
Winchester, where the Conqueror's treasure was, and se- 
cured it for himself. He then hastened his coronation, and 
began a rei2:n which left few other than cruel and bitter 
memories behind it. William Rufus was a coarse, brutal, 
headstrong tyrant. He had his father's stubborn 
^"^' will, without his nobler and more admirable qual- 
ities. He was the slave of his passions, grossly ignorant, 
and thoroughly heartless. During the first two years of 
his reign he was somewhat curbed by the good Lanfranc, 
whom, from necessity, William retained as his chief adviser ; 
but on Lanfranc's death, the king gave full rein to his 
t3Tannical nature and his rude passions. 

He now chose for his principal counsellor a shrewd, cun- 
ning priest named Flambard. This man was the pliant 
instrument of his master in wringing oppressive taxes from 
the people, and in ministering to his vices. William was 

1^ 



WILLIAM RUFUS, OR THE RED. 73 

greedy of money, and by every device added to the bur- 
dens of the people in order to gratify his avarice. 

i^ ^ o J William's 

At the same time he treated both his subjects, greed and 
and the clergy whom they venerated, with abuse 
and contempt. He scoffed at religion, and was so devoid 
of all reverence, that, when he needed money very much, 
he stripped the churches of the gold and silver ornaments 
which the people held sacred, and converted 

^ ^ ' , Robbery 

them to his own uses. Crosses, shrines, sacra- of the 
mental cups, and the boxes in which relics were 
kept, were thus seized by this greedy monarch, and their 
proceeds spent in riotous living. 

William Rufus sometimes pretended to repent of his 
evil actions, and made fair promises to his people. This 
was when he found himself in some trouble. The proud 
lords of England had always washed to have Hostility of 
Robert for king, and were inclined to be arro- *^® ^°'"^^- 
gant and rebellious. In order to keep them in submission, 
the king tried to win the people to his side. But as soon 
as the danger which had threatened him had passed, he fell 
again into his old vicious and tyrannical ways. For four 
years after Lanfranc's death, William left the church with- 
out a head. He depended wholly upon his pliant adviser, 
Flambard, to aid him in governing the kingdom. But it 
happened that the king fell desperately ill. He feared 
that he was going to die : and he dreaded to die ,^^.„. , 

o •=> ' W^illiam's 

Without having received the consolations of the fear of 
church he had so much abused. He professed 
to be very repentant, and made haste at last to choose a 
new Archbishop of Canterbury. 

Fortunately for England, his choice fell upon a wise and 
devout old man named Anselm. Anselm had been a 



74 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

friend of Lanfranc, and resembled him in the simplicity 
and goodness of his character. Knowing what sort of a 
ruler William was, Anselm was very reluctant to be made 
Archbishop archbishop ; but he at last consented and went 
Anselm. |-q £ngland. By this time, however, William had 
recovered from his illness, and had returned to his old 
habits of tyranny and debaucher}^ Anselm was brave 
enough to reprimand the king for his crimes, and to oppose 
the cruelties which he had again begun to practise ; so 
that William soon grew to hate him, and to thwart the 
good the archbishop tried to do in the kingdom, Anselm 
also incurred the ill will of the people by preaching against 
extravagance in dress. He reproved them for wearing 
long curly hair, and long pointed shoes, but could not 
Anseim's prcvail on them to abandon those vanities. Dis- 
departure. couragcd and heartsick, the old man soon left 
England, and repaired to the papal court at Rome. 

William Rufus was as greedy of dominion and power as he 

was of money. He had long looked with covetous eyes upon 

his brother Robert's duchy of Normandy. An important 

event took place which led to his obtaining it. This event was 

the famous war of the " Crusades." The Chris- 

The war . ... r i r i • • 

of the tians of that tune were fond ot makmg journeys to 

Crusades. p|^(.g5 sacrcd to their faith. These journeys were 
called "pilgrimages." Large companies used to travel 
to a great distance, in order to worship and pray at some 
sacred shrine. Pilgrimages were constantly being made 
to Rome, where lived the head of the church. Not only 
kings and princes, but many humble folk travelled slowly, 
through many perils, to pro.strate themselves at the Pope's 
feet, or kneel in the churches of the holy city. It was a 
still more dangerous and distant expedition to the holy 



WILLIAM RUFUS, OR THE RED. 75 

places of Palestine ; to adore at the tomb of Christ, and 
visit the scenes of Biblical history. 

The Holy Land was in possession of the cruel, semi- 
barbarous, infidel Turks. They detested and 
despised the Christians, and refused to permit Land and 
them to make pilgrimages to the sacred shrines. *^®'^'^^^^- 
They would attack and murder the pilgrims, and abuse 
and imprison the priests. This caused a deep emotion 
and excitement throughout the Christian nations, which 
at last resolved that Palestine should be wrested from its 
ferocious heathen masters. An ardent and eloquent priest 
called Peter the Hermit, who had once been a sol- pg^er the 
dier, rose to inspire all Christendom with the eager Hermit, 
desire to assail the Turks. Peter went from city to city, 
from country to country, preaching the " crusade," or " war 
of the cross" (iioo). He kindled everywhere a mighty 
enthusiasm, and thousands of people of every social degree 
flocked to hear him, and to volunteer for the sacred war. 
Among those who went were many English and Normans. 

Robert, Duke of Normandy, was aroused to enthusiasm 
by Peter's fervid eloquence. He summoned his Robert of 
knights and soldiers, and determined to lead Normandy, 
them himself to the Holy Land. But unfortunately he 
had but little money. This was the opportunity for 
which William Rufus had long been looking. He 
now offered Robert all the money he wanted, on con- 
dition that Robert should pledge the duchy of Nor- 
mandy to him for five years. To this Robert reluctantly 
agreed. He departed for the crusades, and the govern- 
ment of Normandy fell into the English king's hands. In 
order to pay Robert, William Rufus fairly ground down 
his subjects with heavy taxes, so that there was misery 



'J^ YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

throii2;liout the leniith and breadth of the land. For more 
William Ru- than twclvc ycars, indeed, during which this bad 
fusopresses Y\w2, Tilled over England, the people were almost 

the English. ^ o 7 i i 

constantly plunged in distress and poverty. 
William Rufus, like the Conqueror, was passionately 
fond of hunting ; and it was through this rough pastime 
that he met his death. He used often to go hunting in 
that New Forest which his father had made at so much 
cost of suffering to the people w^ho had dwelt on the 
land. An elder brother of William Rufus had already 
come to his death in this fatal forest. One day, the king 
set out through the forest with a company of nobles. With 
Sir Walter Tyrell, he became separated from the rest of 
the party. When the party returned from the hunt, 
the king and Sir Walter were missing. A search was 
made, and at about dusk the kins^ was found 

Death of . ' '=' 

William lying in the forest, his heart pierced by an arrow, 
dead. Sir Walter Tyrell had disappeared. When 
he came back, he declared that he knew not how the king 
had come to his end. So rejoiced, however, were the cour- 
tiers and the people at the tyrant's death, that few cared to 
ask how it had come about. William Rufus was buried in 
Winchester Cathedral. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

HENRY THE FIRST. 

ONCE more a great and good king sat upon the throne 
of England. William Rufus was succeeded by his bro- 
ther Henry, the Conqueror's youngest son (iioo). Robert, 
who was older than either, might have become king had 
he been at hand ; but he was far off in the crusades, and 
Henry lost no time in seizing upon the throne. Although 
the English liked Robert, they were not unwilling to 
accept Henry ; for Henry was the first Norman character 
prince born on English soil, and he had al- of Henry i. 
ready shown that he had qualities well befitting the ruler 
of a nation. Henry was a man of ripe education and 
fine tastes. He loved books, so that he received the name 
of " Beauclerc," or "excellent scholar." He was fond of 
travel, of music, and of natural history. He was the first 
English ruler to make a collection of wild animals. He 
formed a sort of zoological garden, with lions, leopards, 
and camels, in one of his parks. He was a man of order, 
law, and peaceful disposition ; yet resolute, sometimes to 
severity, and fond of exercising power. 

One of Henry's first acts as king was to grant a charter 
to his people. A charter is a written agreement, Henry's 
in which a ruler promises liberties and grants charter, 
rights to his subjects. It may be given either to the whole 

n 



yS YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

body of the nation, or to a town corporation, or lo a busi- 
ness enterprise. Henry's charter was the first issued by 
an English monarch, in which it was plainly written down 
what rights were accorded to the people by the throne. 
We shall see that other charters were granted to the Eng- 
lish by later kings. Henry promised that the church, the 
lords, and the common people should all be protected in 
the rights due to them under the laws of England. Two 
other things which Henry did early in his reign served to 
Anseim "^^'i^i ^o^^ ^^'^^^ the gratitude and affection of his sub- 
recaiied. jects. He recalled the good Archbishop An- 
seim to England, and appointed him as his chief minister; 
and he wedded an English princess, a descendant of the 
old Saxon kings, who soon became greatly beloved through- 
out the land as " the good queen Maud." She was very 
comely in person, and was devout, kind, and charitable. 

Henry had established his rule in Normandy as well as 
England ; so that when his brother Robert returned from 
the crusades, he was unable, not only to obtain the Eng- 
lish crown, as he had hoped, but to recover his Norman 
duchy. He was thrown into prison by Henry, and there 
mysteriously died ; and when, soon after, his 

Henry ,. . . . 

recovers SOU William also died, no one was left to dis- 
orman y. ^^^^^^ ^j^^ duchy witli the Euglisli king. Having 
thus become the undisputed ruler over the two realms, 
Henry set vigorously to work to improve the con- 
dition of his subjects. He curbed the power of the great 
lords, and, when they resisted him, seized their lands. 
He maintained, against the claims of the Pope and the 
sturdy opposition of Archbishop Anseim, his right to the 
homage of the bishops and clergy, and his right to ap- 
pcinl the bishops and abbots. Like his predecessors, he 



I 



HENRY THE FIRST. 79 

heavily taxed his people. He taught his soldiers the art of 
war, so that the English became far more skilful English 
on the battlefield than they had ever been before, soldiers. 
Many of the institutions which still exist in England, and 
of which the English are very proud, took their rise in the 
time of the first Henry. After the death of Anselm, with 
whom Henry had quarrelled about the affairs of the church, 
but to whom he had again become reconciled, the king 
chose as his chief councillor a wise man named 

The wise 

Roger, who was Bishop of Salisbury. This able Bishop of 
prelate held the office, then newly created, of ^ '^ "''^" 
"justiciar." It was his duty to carry on the government 
whenever the king was absent from his realm, and to aid 
the king in administering justice. The " justiciar " after- 
wards became "lord chief justice," and the principal com- 
mon-law judge of England still bears that title. The only 
other chief officer of the king was the treasurer, who kept 
the royal accounts. This official became in time the " lord 
high treasurer," and the office is now represented by the 
" lords of the treasury." In course of time the Witena- 
gemote, or council of wise men, had gradually changed in 
its composition. It now included not only a few of the 
chief bishops and chosen councillors of the king, but 
many of the great lords. It was still powerless Thewitena-' 
to resist the king ; but, under the king, it held gemote, 
the powder to make laws for the country. We shall see how, 
in time, this council grew to be the stronghold of English 
liberties. In Henry's reign, also, was laid the foundation 
of two courts of justice which have survived through all 
the centuries since, and which still sit and perform their 
functions in London. These were the Court of the Ex- 
chequer, and the "Curia Regis," which is now known as 
the King's or Queen's Bench. 



So YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

The Court of the Exchequer was at first composed of the 
Early Eng- justiciar, the chancellor, and the principal ofBcers 
lish courts. o£ ^i^g j-o^.^i household. The name was derived 
from the checked cloth on the table in the hall in which 
the court held its sessions. The court sat twice a year, and 
its province was to receive the money accounts, rents, and 
taxes of the kingdom. The revenues derived by the king 
from the rents of his estates, the taxes levied on culti\-ated 
farms, and the fees and fines paid by those who committed 
crimes or violated the law, and on various occasions by the 
nobles, were all paid into the Court of the Exchequer, and 
were by that court paid out again in accordance with the 
The King's king's wishcs. The Curia Regis, or King's Bench, 
Bench. compHsed the king himself, his household offi- 
cers, and a certain number of the barons who sat in the 
Witenagemote. It was the duty of this court to adminis- 
ter justice, to settle disputes between the king's subjects, 
especially between the lords, and to punish violations of 
the law. 

Besides these courts, shire courts were established 
throughout England ; and the judges of the Curia Regis 
were sent from London to one place and another to pre- 
side over these shire courts. This was the beginning of 
English judges going " on circuit." The same system 
prevails at the present day. When the judges were not 
on circuit, the shire courts were presided over by the 
sheriff of the county, who represented the king in them. 
There were yet lower courts to deal out justice — courts 
"of the hundred," and the manorial courts, in which the 
lord of the manor settled the disputes between his vassals. 
Local and punished them for wrong-doing. These 

courts. manorial courts were very much to the English 



HENRY THE FIRST. 8 1 

of Henry's time what the magistrates' courts are to the 
Enghsh of the present day. Thus it was that, during the 
long and vigorous reign of the first Henry, the political and 
judicial institutions of England as they exist to-day began 
to take form and shape. 

Henry was not only a good and wise king, but was a 
faithful husband and a loving father. He was children of 
destined to suffer deeply in the loss of those ^enry i. 
who were dear to him. His amiable queen, Maud, 
died (1118); and two years later his young son William, in 
whom the king reposed his fondest hopes, was drowned 
while crossing the English Channel on his return from a 
visit to France. The young prince was only nineteen, and 
had given the brightest promise of a good and useful life. 
His death cast a gloom over the remaining years of his 
royal fatlier's life. Henry is said never to have smiled 
after hearing of the prince's death. A daughter, named, 
after her mother, Maud, still survived to him; and Henry 
ordained that she should succeed him on the throne. Maud 
was the widow of the German emperor, and was a very 
imperious, domineering woman. She married, a second 
time, the Count of Anjou. It is well to remember this, as 
the future kings and queens of England were all descend- 
ants of this marriage. 

Henry summoned the barons to swear allegiance to 
Maud. Not long after this had been done he set ^eath ot 
out for a visit to his Norman duchy. He was ^^^^y^- 
destined never to see England again. He soon fell ill 
in Normandy and died there (1135). Men noticed that 
there was that year an eclipse of the sun. They took 
it as a sign foretelling the end of the good monarch who 
had reigned so wisely and so well for thirty-five years. 



82 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

Henry's remains were brought back to England, and en- 
tombed in the midst of his faithful people. But Maud 
found it impossible to obtain the crown which her father 
had bequeathed to her. No sooner was he dead than 
Accession great coufusion arose in the realm. The lords 
of Stephen j-efuscd to acccpt Maud as queen, and after a 
logne. period of cival ccmmotion they chose Stephen of 

Boulogne, the son of Henry's sister Adela, to be king 
of England. 



CHAPTER XV, 

THE FIRST PLANTAGENET. 

THE accession of Stephen (1135) was the beginning 
of a troublous time for the English people. Nearly 
the whole period of his reign was turbulent, and shaken 
by civil convulsions. Stephen himself was brave, amiable, 
and was at first well liked by the nobles and the character 
people. But he was not a strong or resolute ruler, o^stephen. 
He did not understand the art of governing. He made lav- 
ish promises to his subjects, but was not able either to curb 
the lawlessness of the great lords, or to maintain order in 
the land. The lords built stronger castles than ever, and 
oppressed and plundered the common folk without hin- 
drance. Stephen offended the clergy, moreover, by im- 
prisoning the good Bishop of Salisbury and taking his 
castles from him. Thus he lost the support of the church 
while he did not gain that of the nobles. The country 
sank into dreadful misery. The people were not Misery in 
only robbed by the feudal lords, but were tortured, England, 
starved, and killed by them. These cruel robbers spared 
nothing. They plundered and desecrated the churches. 
They compelled whole communities to seek safety in exile. 
In many parts of England no crops were planted, and 
famine was added to the other horrors suffered by the 
people. 

83 



84 YOUNG people's ENGLAND, ' 

The Empress Maud did not submit to her exclusion from 
Attempt of her father's throne without a struggle. She 
Maud to landed in England with a larsje force, and for 

gain the ^ ^ '_ 

throne. fourtccu ycars civil war desolated the kingdom. 
Maud was aided by the king of Scotland, and by her half- 
brother, the Earl of Gloucester. The conflict between the 
claimants to the throne was protracted and bitter, and was 
long doubtful. Stephen was at one time captured and im- 
prisoned ; at another, the Empress only escaped capture by 
hastening over the snow in a white robe, so that she might 
not be seen. 

At last both parties, as w^ell as the countr}-, grew sick of 
the long contest, and a peace was patched up between 
Stephen and Maud. It was agreed that Stephen should 
continue to reign as long as he lived, and that upon his 
death, Maud's son, Henry, should succeed to the throne. 
Deatu of The year after this treaty was concluded, Ste- 
steptfien. pheu died (1154); and Henry, the second of 
the name, was hailed as king by the once more united 
nation. 

Henrv the Second w^as the first Endish sovereiiin who 
Accession bore 2L sumamc which became that of a family 

of Henry II. ^,^^ ^ j-q^^J |-j^^_ j^g ^^,^^ ^|^g ^^^^ ^^ ^|^g u pj.^j^_ 

tagenet " kings. The name " Plantagenet " had been giv- 
en to Henry's father, Geoffrey of Anjou, because he was 
in the habit of wearing a piece of broom in his hat ; the 
Latin name of " broom " being planta genista. At the 
time of his accession Henry was just twenty-one years of 
age. He had seen something of war, and was skilled in the 
science of arms. He soon showed, moreover, a rare 
capacity for governing men. He had been carefully 
educated, and was far more than an ordinary scholar. 



THE FIRST PLAXTAGENET. 85 

He loved reading, and liked best the society of learned 
men. He was extremely active and industrious, had a 
strong will, and entered as vigorously into the characterof 
hardy sports of his people as he did into the ^^"^""y "• 
task of ruling them. "No one," says one who knew him, 
" is more gentle to the distressed, more affable to the 
poor, more overbearing to the proud. No one could be 
more dignified in speaking, more cautious at table, more 
moderate in drinking, more splendid in gifts, more gener- 
ous in arms." It was a ruler possessed of such high 
qualities that now entered upon the work of restoring order 
and law to the long-suffering and long-distracted English 
people. One of his first acts was to grant to ^he second 
his subjects a charter ensuring them their lib- c^^^^t^r. 
erties. He took the wise Theobald, Archbishop of Canter- 
bury, into his confidence ; and, quick to perceive merit and 
ability in others, he found in Thomas a Becket, who was 
the archbishop's clerk, a witty companion and a wise coun- 
sellor, and made him his chancellor. Thomas a Thomas a 
Becket was destined to play an important and becket. 
stirring part in the events of Henry's reign. He was tall 
and comely, of a merry and social nature, and full of 
bright and sparkling talk ; and soon completely won the 
king's affection and trust. Aided in his regal duties by 
this able adviser, Henry entered upon a resolute course of 
internal reform. He compelled the haughty and jealous 
lords to pull down their castles, and took from many of 
them the lands w^hich Stephen had given them. When 
a lord refused to obey, Henry went himself at Henry 
the head of his troops to enforce obedience. It ^^^^"^ *^^® 

^ lords. 

was not long before the great lords were entirely 
subjected to the royal will, Henry jDlaced sheriffs of 



86 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

his own selection in the counties, and these restored the 
reign of justice through the land. - 

When Henry had been on the throne six years, the good 
Archbishop Theobald died. The king, after an interval of 
a year, appointed his favorite, Thomas a Becket, to the 
vacant see. As time went on, Henry's affection for Becket 
had constantly increased. He had made him the favor- 
ite companion alike of his labors and of his 

Anecdote 

of Henry Idle liours. It is related that one cold winter's 

and Becket. , . . ,, , . , ^ 

day, as they were ridmg together m the Lon- 
don streets, they espied a beggar shivering in his rags. 
" Ought not that poor wretch," cried the king, " to have 
a cloak to cover him from the cold?" "To be sure he 
ought," replied Becket. Whereupon the king playfully 
seized Becket's mantle of fur, and threw it to the trembling 
Becket as Hiendicant. When Becket, however, found him- 
archbishop. ggif Archbishop of Canterbury, and. the head of 
the church in England, he seemed to completely change 
his character. He at once abandoned his gaiety of talk 
and conduct, ceased to make merry with the king, and 
gave up his lavish style of living. He adopted the severe 
and self-mortifying habits of a monk. He wore a hair- 
cloth next to his skin, scattered money among the poor, 
and devoted many hours each day to prayer and penance. 
Every night he washed the feet of thirteen beggars, as a 
sign of pious humility. He appeared, indeed, to have 
given up the world and its vanities, and to devote himself 
entirely to the service of the church. 

This conduct on the part of his old friend and favor- 
ite amazed and disappointed the king. Henry had hoped 
that Becket would aid him in bringing the church into 
complete subjection to the crown. Instead of this, the new 



THE FIRST PLANTAGENET. 8/ 

archbishop became the champion of the church, and as- 
serted its superiority to the royal power. The Quarrel be- 
two bitterly quarrelled. It was not long before t^^en 

■' / » Henry and 

they came into open conflict. Becket stood Becket. 
stoutly by what he regarded as the rights of the bishops 
and clergy. He maintained that they owed their allegi- 
ance, not to the king, but to the Pope. Henry, on the 
other hand, demanded that the clergy should do homage 
to him as his subjects. Another matter of violent dis- 
pute between Becket and the king was that of Bishop-s 
the courts of law. William the Conqueror had courts, 
established special courts, presided over by the bishops, 
for the trial of clergymen who committed misdemeanors 
or crimes. King Henry, in order to increase his royal 
authority, was resolved that these bishops' courts should 
be abolished, and that the priests should be tried for their 
offences in the ordinary courts of law. This was resisted 
by Becket with all his might. 

In order to settle the matter, Henry summoned Becket 
and the rest of the bishops to meet him in a 

The council 

town called Clarendon. He demanded of them ofciaren- 
that they should agree to certain articles which ^°'^' 
he laid before them. According to these articles, the 
bishops and clergy were to hold their abbeys and domains 
as vassals of the king ; the king's court was to determine 
whether an offending clergyman should be tried in a 
bishop's court or in an ordinary court ; and an officer 
of the king was to be always present in the bishop's 
courts, to see that they did justice in accordance with 
the king's will. Becket for a while stubbornly resisted 
these proposals ; but as all the other bishops assented to 
them, he was at last compelled to submit. No sooner, 



88 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

however, had he left Clarendon than he repented of 
his compliance. He sen-t to the Pope to beg his forgive- 
ness for havins: yielded. Henrv, on learninir this, 

Becket ° "^ . ? 

rssiststhe angrily summoned the archbishop before him for 
^^'^^' trial. A council of bishops and nobles was held 

at Northampton ; and before this body Becket appeared, 
carrying a heavy wooden cross. As he entered the royal 
council he was received with jeers and mockery ; and as 
he was about to retire, the cry of " Traitor ! " was flung 
after him. Becket's proud spirit was aroused. Turning 
fiercely at the insult, he retorted, " Were I a knight, my 
sword should answer that foul taunt ! " 

But Becket found his enemies too strong for him. That 
Flight of night he tied in disguise to France ;. and for 
Becket. gj^ years the struggle between the king on one 
side, and the adherents of Becket on the other, raged in 
England. At last the king became so deeply involved 
in quarrels with the Pope and the French, that he was 
forced to recall Becket from exile. As the returning 
archbishop passed along the roads of Kent, he was re- 
ceived with noisy welcome by the people ; and he entered 
Canterbury once more, surrounded by a multitude of warm 
adherents. No sooner had Becket found himself again in 
Eno-land, than he bes-an to excommunicate the 

Becket . . 

returns to bishops who had so bitterly opposed him. The 
ng an . ]^ing, who was in France, heard of these acts ; 
and, overcome with anger, was heard to exclaim, " Is there 
no cowardly courtier of mine who will rid me of the insults 
of this low-born priest ? " 

Four knights who heard this hasty exclamation hur- 
ried across the channel, and made their way to the arch- 
bishop's palace. They penetrated to his chamber, where 



THE FIRST PLANTAGENET. 89 

they upbraided him with angry reproaches. No sooner 
had they withdrawn than Becket, with a few friends, fled 
into the cathedral for safety, and stood on the steps of 
the altar, awaiting his fate. Presently the four knights, 
flourishing their arms, rushed in, crying, "Where is the 
traitor?" ., The archbishop turned upon them proudly. 
" Here am I," he replied ; " no traitor, but a priest of 
God." He went down the altar steps, and stood with his 
back against a pillar, confronting his assailants with un- 
blanched brow. "You are our prisoner!" cried one of 
the knights ; and they seized him and tried to drag him 
out of the cathedral. Becket shook them off, and threw 
one of them upon the ground. But they soon overcame 
him; and, as he knelt upon the altar steps, crying, "Lord, 
receive my spirit," their blows fell upon him Death of 
thick and fast. One of the knights with his becket. 
sword scattered the archbishop's brains on the cathedral 
floor. "Come," he cried to his companions, "let us away. 
The traitor will never rise again." So died the proud and 
brave Thomas a Becket. Soon after he was enrolled as 
a saint in the calendar of the church. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

henry's reforms and conquests. 

KING HENRY heard of the murder of Becket with 
alarm and dismay. Becket had always been loved 
by the English people, who had remained steadfast to his 
cause against the king and the bishops. All Europe, more- 
over, was shocked and outraged by his violent death. The 
kins: onlv escaped excommunication bv submit- 

The king O . 1 

submits to ting himself in all humility to the Pope. In every 
°^^' w^ay he tried to atone for the deed which had 
been prompted by his own hasty and passionate words. 
He made a pilgrimage to Becket's tomb at Canterbury, 
and with bare feet walked three miles along the road 
leading to the cathedral. Kneeling at the tomb, the 
haughty king bared his back, which was flogged by the 
priests (i 174). Henry was forced, for a while, to refrain 
from asserting the authority which he had acquired over 
the church. But in the course of time he* resumed it, 
and the terms which he had compelled the bishops to 
accept at Clarendon were carried out. This 

struggle ^ 

between Struggle for suprcmacy between the king and 
a d^thJ^" the church was the first of a long series of sim- 
church. ji^^ contests which extended through many cen- 
turies of English history. 

Having reduced the bishops and clergy to submission 
90 



HENRY S REFORMS AND CONQUESTS. QI 

to the royal rule, Henry was forced to undertake a series 
of warlike operations. Despite his courage, he disliked 
war, and would have much preferred to devote himself to 
the peaceful government of his realm. But his enemies 
all of a sudden attacked him on every side. The 

... . 1 1 1 • 1 , AVars with 

French kmg invaded his duchy of Normandy. France and 
The Scottish king descended upon his northern 
counties ; and, what was the bitterest blow of all to Henry, 
his own sons, Richard and Geoffrey, inspired by an un- 
fihal ambition, attacked their father's troops in Aquitaine. 
His eldest son, Henry, whom he had caused to be crowned 
with great pomp, also turned against him. Meanwhile the 
English lords, whose power had been so sternly broken 
by the king, began to revolt from his rule. But Henry's 
resolution and promptness overcame one and all of these 
stubborn foes. One of his generals took the king of 
Scotland prisoner in battle. The barons were overcome 
bv the faithful train bands who flocked to the 

t Triumph 

king's succor. In France the success of the of the 
English arms was equally decisive. In no long ^"s^^^**- 
time Henry found himself again the undisputed master 
of his dominions, and really more powerful than he had 
ever been before. 

Peace being thus restored, Henry turned eagerly to the 
reforms which he had long desired to bring about. Many 
of these reforms had to do with the execution of the law. 
The king divided his kingdom into circuits and Reforms in 
sent his judges from circuit to circuit to collect *^® courts, 
taxes and to hear and adjudge causes. He took the office 
of sheriff from the nobles, who had greatly abused it, and 
gave it to his officers of the exchequer and his courtiers. 
The judges who went on circuit were those who sat in the 



92 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

king's court, and this brought the county courts and the 

central court into close connection. It was Henry, too, 

who established a system of trial which later developed 

into the sjreat and peculiarly English system of 

Beginning _ v o ^ 

of trial by trial by jury. In each local community, called 
^^^^' the "hundred," twelve men were summoned to 

present those who, within their district, were accused of 
crimes. These twelve men not only bore witness against 
the accused, but decided on the truth of the charges. 
Then it came to pass that these "jurors," as they were al- 
ready named, were allowed to call other witnesses, who 
had seen the offences committed ; and so the jurors, or the 
jury, became at last only the judges of the accusations 
made. 

Henry caused his rules and orders for the execution of 
the law to be written out in codes, which he 
called " assizes." These assizes were issued, 
with the consent of his great council, to the judges and 
sheriffs, to regulate their action. In his law reforms we 
find not only the beginnings of trial by jury, but of the 
whole modern judicial system of England. The circuits, 
the union of the judges in the king's court to hear appeals, 
the reform in the office of sheriff,^ the issuing of the 
assizes, may all be found in an expanded and developed 
form in the England of to-day. It was Henry, moreover, 
who established what was called "scutage." The king 
had always had the right to call upon his lords 
outage. ^^^^1 vassals to take up arms and fight in the 
wars. They were now compelled, if they did not take up 
arms, to pay a certain sum of money into the royal treas- 
ury. This fine was large or small, in proportion to the 
amount of land held by him who paid it; and this system 



93 

of fines was called "scutage." With the money thus ob- 
tained, Henry hired foreign troops, principally in Flanders, 
to fight his foreign wars for him ; and he thus deprived 
the English lords of the power to rise, with their retain- 
ers, against him. For internal defence, Henry relied on 
the "assize of arms," by which every freeman in Assize of 
the kingdom was obliged to serve in what we arms, 
should now call the militia. 

One of the most important events of Henry's long and 
enterprising reign was the conquest of Ireland. There had 
been a time, many centuries before the period in which 
Henry reigned, while England was yet barbaric and pagan, 
when Ireland was renowned for Christian piety and even 
for learning. Christian priests had gone from Ireland, 
as early as the seventh centur}^, to preach the gospel 
among the heathen, not only in Britain, but even conquest 
on the European continent. Ireland was then o^ Ireland, 
called the " Isle of Saints." St. Patrick had preached 
Christianity in Ireland more than a century before St. . 
Augustine went to convert the men of Kent. Churches, 
monasteries, and schools dotted the Emerald Isle. But 
the Danes had invaded Ireland as well as England. They 
had spread havoc through the land. They had destroyed 
the sacred edifices and the schools ; and under their bar- 
barous rule Ireland had long since sunk into anarchy and 
ignorance. For generations now, Ireland had been the 
prey of rival and savage kings and chiefs, who produced 
continual disorder, and who again reduced the Irish well 
nigh to a state of barbarism. 

King Henry, bold and vigorous in nature, was also a 
very warm hearted prince. He devotedly loved The king's 
his sons ; and of them all, his youngest son, ^°'^^- 



94 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

John, was the most dear to him. It was in order to pro- 
vide a kingdom for John that Henry turned his eyes to 
Ireland and resolved to conquer it. Dermot, one of the 
five kings who ruled over Ireland, afforded Henry the 
wished-for opportunity. A valiant English soldier, Rich- 
ard Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke, crossed into Ireland 
uith a large force, and after a bitter struggle, subdued the 
country. Then Strongbow, who married Dermot's daugh- 
ter, declared himself king of Leinster. But Henry would 
Defeat of ^^^ submit to this. He, too, crossed into Ireland 
Strongbow. ^^.j^]-^ ^^^ army, and Strongbow gave in his submis- 
sion. The English monarch kept his court at Dublin, 
caused castles to be built in many places, gave lands to his 
English courtiers, and carried his sway over a large part of 
the island (1171). Then he sent John to rule Ireland in 
his stead. But John, who was a mean and despicable 
prince, made himself so hated by the Irish that his father 
was forced to command him to return to England. At the 
end of Henry's reign, but a small portion of Ireland re- 
The mained in English hands. This portion com- 

"Paie." prised the country round about Dublin, which 
was always afterwards known as the "English Pale." 

The long and splendid reign of Henry the Second now 
drew to its close. Two of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, 
had preceded the aged king to the grave. His elder 
remaining son, Richard, was allied with Henry's enem}^, 
the French king, and was fighting the English troops in 
France. Henry, with his army, was trying to hold his 
French dominions against Richard, when his final hour 
came. He fell ill after a defeat which Richard and the 
French had inflicted upon him. As he lay in suffering, 
a list of those who were leagued against him was shown 



HENRY S REFORMS AND CONQUESTS. 95 

to him. Among the names he saw with anguish that of 
his best beloved son, John. " Now," cried the ingratitude 
dying monarch, turning his face to the wall, ofJo^^- 
"let things go as they will. I care no more for myself 
or for the world." He was tenderly borne on a litter 
to a town called Chinon, where, just before he breathed 
his last breath, he exclaimed, " Shame, shame Death of 
on a conquered king!" Thus (1189) passed ^^^^y ^^^ 
away in misery the greatest sovereign who had reigned 
in England since Alfred. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 

THE English people made rapid advances in civ-ili- 
zation, industry, and arts during the reigns of the 
last three kings. They continued to grow more and more 
Fusion of i^to one nation. The divisions between the 
races. Saxous and the Normans were fast disappear- 

ing. They had freely intermarried, and under Henry the 
Second the Normans had to a large extent become Eng- 
hshmen. The two languages — the Saxon and the Nor- 
man — remained for a while, it is true, side by side. The 
upper classes, the nobles, the higher clergy, and the royal 
court, for the most part spoke French, while the mass of 
the people spoke Saxon. The proceedings of the law 
courts and the church services were still in Latin. But 
nearly the whole population, whether they habitually talked 
in French or in Saxon, understood both languages. In 
The English ^uc time Saxou, or old English, prevailed over 
language. Normau, and became the language of the whole 
people. Almost all the literature of the period of Henry 
the Second was written either in Latin or in Saxon. 

Education had made marked progress. There were, in- 
deed, but few schools, and these were not open to the 
Early children of the poor. But the clergy, who were 

schools. ^^Q chief and almost the sole educators of the 

96 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. Q/ 

time, paid a good deal of attention to the teaching of the 
young. In the schools there were, of course, no books. 
A long period was yet to elapse before the art of printing 
would be invented. The only books were those written 
with great pains by the monks in the monasteries. So it 
was that the children were taught either by word of mouth 
or by means of pictures. The walls of the church- Method of 
es were painted with scenes from the Bible or teaching, 
from the lives of the saints ; and these were described by 
the priests to the children, who thus learned the Bible sto- 
ries by heart. Another method which the priests had of 
impressing lessons on the minds of their scholars was to 
represent scenes from the Bible and from church history in 
plays. The priests themselves performed these i3lays in the 
churches or churchyards. They would represent the crea- 
tion, the story of Cain and Abel, the story of the ark. 
One of the priests, standing by, would explain the play as 
it progressed. The actors were attired in the costumes 
proper to their parts. An angel would appear in sacred 
white robes and with wings ; a saint, with a rude piays. 
representation of a shining glory about his head. These 
sacred dramas at once gave great delight to the people, 
who had but few recreations, and indelibly fixed the events 
described by the Bible in the memory of the young. 

As years went on, and the English thrived and multi- 
plied, they gathered more and more in the large towns, 
which grew rapidly in population and in the range of their 
industries. The government of the towns had The large 
changed in process of time. From being ruled towns, 
by sheriffs, as the people in the country were, the towns 
became more independent, and had something to say as to 
how they should be governed. These privileges they 



9o YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

obtained by purchasing charters of the king, or of the 
great lords on whose domains the towns had grown up. 
The charters granted the towns a certain degree of self- 
government. They now had their own magistrates and 
law-courts, and regulated the collection and expenditure 
of their own taxes. 

It was in the period of the early successors of the Con- 
Trade queror, too, that the trade and craft guilds, which 
guilds. j-^^^,g gygj. since played so large a part in English 
municipal affairs, took their rise. These guilds were asso- 
ciations of men engaged in the same trade or craft, for the 
purpose of protecting their common interests, and assisting 
each other. For instance, there was the merchant tailors' 
guild, the grocers' guild, the goldsmiths' and the weavers' 
guilds. These guilds, even thus early in English history, 
took an important part in directing the public affairs of the 
towns. King Henry the Second encouraged the growth of 
the towns, since the money paid for their charters filled 
his treasury, and their increase in wealth and prosperity 
enabled him to lay heavier taxes upon them. In a short 
time after his death, the citv of London obtained, 

The gov- / 

eminent of by a hcavy payment, the right to choose its own 
governing body, and thus the lord mayor and 
corporation of London came into existence. 

We are able to perceive, in the events of the century 
just preceding Henry the Second's death, the first faint 
beginnings of that great principle in the English govern- 
ment which consists in its representative character. The 
Witenagemote, whose advice the king sought more and 
more as time progressed, and to whose opinions he gave 
Represen- Hiuch weight, represented, in a small body, the 
tation. great body of wise and able men throughout the 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. QQ 

realm. The jurymen, chosen, as we have seen, to adjudge 
the crimes of a neighborhood, were selected to represent 
the general population of that neighborhood. The judges, 
sitting in the circuits, represented the body of justices of 
the king's court. Thus it came about that the custom of 
having a few men to represent, and to act in the name of, 
the mass of the people, or at least of a larger body of men, 
was being almost silently developed in the midst of wars, 
civil commotions, and the bitter rivalries of princes, bish- 
ops, and nobles. 

The English of the twelfth century lived far more com- 
fortably in every way than their ancestors of the Mode of 
two preceding centuries. It was an age, it is living:, 
true, in which there was at times much lawlessness. 
Bands of robbers infested the forests in many parts of the 
island. The power of the great lords to oppress their vas- 
sals was not yet broken. Still the condition of the people 
as a whole was much improved. Many industries and arts 
had been added to their means of livelihood. The rei^n 
of justice was more even and uniform. Many new pas- 
times, too, had come into use to vary the recrea- Medigevai 
tion of the people. Chess, bowling, wrestling, sports, 
fencing, quarter-staff, occupied the idle hours ; while jug- 
glers and dancing bears, minstrels and singing girls, drew 
rustic crowds in delight, on summer afternoons, to the 
village greens. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. 

RICHARD, known in history and legend as "the 
Lion-Hearted," succeeded his father, Henry the 
Second, as his eldest living son (1189). He was a warlike, 
chivalrous, and romantic prince, and had scarcely been 
crowned when he left his kingdom to go upon the third 
crusade. The infidel Saracens had taken Jerusalem, and 
now the crusaders were gathering from every part of Eu- 
rope to attempt the recapture of the holy city. Richard 
Character of ^^'^s advcnturous and fond of glory and display. 
Richard I. j^g joined the Christian hosts who besieged Je- 
rusalem, and many stories are told of his knightly prowess 
and valor in the East. But his reign, as far as the history 
of England is concerned, was not a momentous or impor- 
tant one. Richard appointed some of his wisest counsel- 
lors to take charge of his realm during his absence ; and 
state of so wcU did they fulfil this duty that the country 
England. remained, during the greater part of the time, 
peaceful, law-abiding, and prosperous. 

It is true that the people were very grievously taxed to 
support Richard and his knights in the distant war. At 
the very outset of Richard's reign, too, several dreadful 
massacres of the Jews took place in different parts of 
England. This was the result of religious fanaticism, and 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. lOI 

perhaps in part of the dislike with which the common 
people viewed the business skill and keenness Persecution 
which marked the Jews. Richard punished some oft^e Jews, 
of the leaders of the massacres. He needed the loans 
which the Jews made to him, and it was therefore his inter- 
est to protect them. No sooner, however, had Richard 
turned his back on England, than his younger brother, 
John, began to conspire to wrest the throne away from him. 
John sought the good will of the great lords, and per- 
suaded the French king to aid him in his designs. He 
dismissed and banished Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, whom 
Richard had left as chief minister; and at one time 
seemed about to succeed in his project. 

Meanwhile Richard, who had fought gallantly but vainly 
in the Holy Land (for the Saracens held out in 

J ■ \ Richard 

Jerusalem against the crusaders), was taken pris- taken 

11 T^ 1 1 11 • prisoner. 

oner on his way back to England, and thrown m- 
to a dungeon by the Emperor of Germany, John, encour- 
aged by this event, resumed more vigorously than ever 
his attempts upon the throne. He gave out that Richard 
was dead. At the same time he offered the Emperor a 
large sum of money to keep Richard in prison. He 
prompted the French king to make charges against Rich- 
ard to the Emperor. But a faithful priest, Hubert Walter, 
balked John's designs, and, by his energy, put down the 
revolt which John had stirred up. The Emperor ^. ^ ^ 

*' ^ ^ Richard 

released his royal prisoner, and at last Richard returns to 
once more set foot on the soil of his realm. He 
was crowned a second time, so as to wipe out the disgrace 
of having been in prison, banished his unruly brother, and 
punished those who had given him aid. 

But Richard's restless and warlike nature would not per- 



I02 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

mit him long to reign quietly at home. Soon he was off 
to the wars again, this time to give battle to his former 
friend, but now his bitter enemy, the French king Philip. 
War with He crossed over to Normand}', and was soon 
France. engaged in a vigorous conflict. He built a for- 
midable castle on the Seine, called the Chateau Gaillard. 
When Philip saw the towers of this lofty fortress looming 
above the river, he angrily shook his fist towards it and 
exclaimed, " I will capture it, though its walls were of 
iron." " I will hold it," cried Richard, when he heard of 
his rival's boast, " were its walls of butter ! " Soon after, 
Richard attacked the Chateau of Chalaix, one of Philip's 
stoutest strongholds. While he was riding beneath its 
walls, seeking a good place to make the assault, he was 
fatally wounded by an arrow. As the brave monarch lay 
stretched out in his tent, in his last hours, he heard the 
victorious shouts of his soldiers. The fortress had been 
taken. Presently the man who had given him his death 
Death of wound was brought before him, bound hand 
Richard. ^y^^\ foot. " Lct him go free!" feebly murmured 
the dying king. A few moments more and Richard was 
dead (1199). 

The true heir to the throne was young prince Arthur of 
Brittany. He was the son of Geoffrey, an elder brother of 
John, who had died some years before. But Prince Arthur 
was away in Brittany, and so John succeeded in obtain- 
ing the throne without a struggle. A few years after, 
young Arthur mysteriously disappeared, after having been 
taken prisoner bv his uncle and shut up in 

Fate- of ^ , ^ '^ 

Prince Roucn ; and it was generally believed that John 

had caused him to be foully murdered. John 

was perhaps the worst king who has ever worn the English 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. IO3 

crown. He had, to be sure, some good qualities. He 
was a brave soldier and an able general. He is said to 
have been handsome in person and pleasant in manners. 
There were times during his reign, too, when he seemed to 
be stung with remorse, and sought to expiate his crimes by 
founding monasteries and giving domains to the church. 
But John's good qualities were far overbalanced by his 
bad ones. He was cruel and perfidious, miserly character 
and fierce-tempered, heartless and mean. In the of Jo^m. 
early part of his reign his true character did not fully 
appear. His aged mother. Queen Eleanor, and Hubert 
Walter, who had become Archbishop of Canterbury and 
chancellor, restrained his evil tendencies by their resolu- 
tion and wise counsels. But from their restraints the 
tyrant soon broke loose. Meanwhile the strange fate 
of young Arthur was in due time avenged by the mis- 
fortunes which, one after another, overtook his probable 
murderer. The Norman barons, who were attached to 
Arthur, were outraged by his death. The French king 
Philip, taking advantage of their wrath, invad- invasion of 
ed Normandy, of which John was duke, with Normandy, 
his army. Deserted by the barons, and distrustful of 
the loyalty of his soldiers, John did not even seriously 
attempt to retain the duchv. The French kino^ 

' . ° The French 

took possession of Normandy, which was thus conquest of 
forever lost to the English. This, however, °^"^^° ^■ 
proved a good thing instead of a misfortune. England 
had no longer to spend money and troops in fighting to 
protect Normandy. The English now held sway in Eng- 
land alone ; and the Normans in England became thor- 
ough Englishmen. 

Scarcely had John found himself deprived of Normandy, 



I04 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

when he was involved in a bitter conflict with the Pope. 
John's Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury, had 

quarrel died: and the question was, who should ap- 

with the 3 17 r 

Pope. point his successor. The right to do so was 

claimed by the king on the one hand, and the monks of 
Canterbury on the other. Both sides appealed to the Pope 
at Rome. He refused to confirm the choice of either, and 
commanded the monks to elect a third candidate of the 
Pope's own selection. This was Stephen Langton, a good 
man, whose name holds a high place in English history. 
But King John would not permit Langton to set foot in 
England. The Pope retorted by forbidding the English 
lo hold religious services. The churches were closed, the 
The "In- gravcyards were shut up, there were no bap- 
terdict." tisms, and marriages were celebrated in the 
open air. This "interdict," as it was called, gave great 
distress to the people, to whom the services of the church 
seemed of vital importance to their daily life. 

But even this heavy penalty, visited on his innocent 
subjects, did not move the king. The Pope then exccm- 
municated John by name. John went on his way, as if 
indifferent even to this penalty. He employed himself in 
extending the conquest of Henry the Second in Ireland, 
and in putting down the rebellious Welsh. But news came 
John takes ^o him which at last quelled and cowed even his 
alarm. stubbom Spirit. The French king was prepar- 

ing to invade England. A monk, named Peter, had gone 
among the people, prophesying that in a few months John 
would cease to be king. There were many and fast in- 
creasing signs that his subjects were beginning to hate 
him. These tidings filled John with terror. He now 
humbly submitted to the Pope. He permitted Langton to 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. IO5 

assume the archbishopric of Canterbury ; and it is said 
that, in his new humility, he Liid his crown at john-s re- 
the feet of the Pope's envoy. He did more than pentance. 
this. He agreed that England should thenceforth be sub- 
ject to the Pope, and that the English kings should do 
homage to the Pope as his vassals. 

John's submission was promptly rewarded. The Pope 
forbade the French king to invade England, and removed 
the stigma of excommunication. Church services were re- 
sumed throughout the kingdom. Langton was in peaceful 
possession of the see of Canterbury. It seemed as if, at 
last, there was a prospect of tranquillity in the English 
realm. But it was really on the eve of a convulsion far 
greater even than that which followed the conflict between 
the king and the Pope. Events were about to ensue 
which were destined to have an immense influence on the 
destinies of the English race. The momentous struggle 
between John and his o^reat barons, the latter be- 

-' ^ ' The revolt 

ing aided by Langton and the bishops, was pro- of the 
yoked by the headstrong, rashness of the king 
himself. He began to raise a large army to put down the 
great lords who were now in revolt against him. He was 
stoutly and successfully resisted ; and the result was the 
Great Charier of English liberties. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE GREAT CHARTER. 

THE power of the great barons had been curbed and 
ahuost broken by Henry the Second. But during 
Richard's absence at the crusades, and amid the troubles 

and cruelties of John's reign, they had once 
of the more grown powerful. They had become bold 

enough to refuse to aid John in the defence of 
Normandy ; and their hostile attitude was one of the influ- 
ences which frightened him into submission to the church. 
The time had now come when the barons, uniting with 
the bishops and clergy and the common people, could 
compel the king to yield to their terms. The leading spirit 
in the revolt which sprang up against the king's brutal 
Stephen tyrauuy was the patriotic Stephen Langton, 
Langton. Archbishop of Canterbury. In vain had he 
urged John to be just, and to give to his people the rights 
and liberties which they had once enjoyed. At a council 
held in St. Paul's, London, Langton told the bishops and 
barons that he had found the charter of liberties granted 
to his people by the first Henry. " With this precious 
charter," he exclaimed, "we will win back the long-lost 
rights of the people." 

A year later, a still more notable gathering took place at 
the shrine of St. Edmund. A great company of barons 

io6 




KING JOHX AND THE GREAT CHARTER. - J^A(,e 107. 



THE GREAT CHARTER. lO/ 

met, and swore upon the altar that, unless the king grant- 
ed them a new charter of liberties, they would The barons 
make war upon him. Then they raised a for- combined 

^ -^ against the 

midable army, with headquarters at Brackley. king. 
Upon this, the king sent for Langton, and asked him what 
the barons wanted. When Langton told him of their de- 
mands, he refused, in a great rage, to grant them. The 
barons thereupon marched with their troops to London. 
The king's adherents, even his courtiers and retinue, be- 
gan to desert him. Presently he found that he had no 
force adequate to resist the advancing barons. It was clear 
that everybody was against him. The Lord Mayor and 
citizens of London espoused the cause of the insurgents, 
and sent train-bands to their camp. Perceiving that all 
would be over with him if he further resisted, John at last 
sent word to the barons that he would concede what they 
demanded. 

The meeting between the baffled tyrant and the barons 
took place in a beautiful meadow called Runny- 

■' The meet- 

mede, not far from Windsor. The Thames ing at Run- 
wound gracefully through the meadow ; and a "^^^ 
pretty, verdant island rose in the midst. The king had 
his camp on one bank of the river, and the tents of the 
barons rose on the other. Each side appointed envoys, 
who met on the island and discussed the terms of the 
new charter. Before the sun went down that night, 
John had yielded to every demand of the barons, and 
had signed his name to the Great Charter. The very 
document still exists, and, faded and torn, may 

' ' ^ •' John signs 

be seen any day by the visitor to the British Mu- the great 

seum. After John had signed it, he was almost 

beside himself with rage. He is said to have gnashed his 



I08 YOUNG PEOTLe's ENGLAND. 

teeth, and in his hatred and despair, to have grasped some 
sticks and gnawed them savagely with his teeth. (12 15). 

The Great Charter, thus wrung from King John by his 

barons and people, not only restored the rights which 

Henry the First had granted, but went much further than 

Henry's charter in restricting the powers of the crown. 

It bound the kin^ not to levy any taxes upon 

Provisions ^ -^ , 

of the the people without the consent of his great coun- 

cil. It pledged him not to levy fines capriciously 
upon those who were guilty of offences, but to give over 
the levying of such fines to juries composed of the offend- 
ers' neighbors. It secured the rights and liberties of the 
English church, freeing it from the king's dictation. It 
required the king to give up the power which he had as- 
sumed to take and hold the estates of the lords who died, 
and to compel the heirs to such estates to pay into the 
ro}'al treasury any sum the king chose to fix ; and to aban- 
don the power to compel widows to marry whomsoever the 
king pleased. It exacted from the king a promise not to 
any longer permit his retainers to take from the people, 
at will, whatever horses or food they required, without 
making any payment for such things. It also ordained 
that the oppressive laws in regard to priests should no 
longer be put in force. 

But the greatest concession made by King John in this 
Principal mcmorablc charter was, that no freeman should 
concession |^g deprived of his personal liberty, or otherwise 
charter. puuishcd, uutil hc had been tried by his "peers," 
or equals ; or otherwise than in strict accordance with 
the law. The king had been in the habit of throwing 
such offenders into prison and imposing heavy fines upon 
them without a trial, and at his own despotic will. But 



THE GREAT CHARTER. IO9 

now he was forced to give this power up. Thus one of 
the greatest principles of EngUsh Hberty became settled 
and established. "To none will we sell justice," the 
king was obliged to swear, " to none will we de- justice 
lav or denv it." Thus equal justice was ensured secured 

^ -' to the 

to rich and poor, powerful and feeble, alike. people. 
The execution of justice was taken from the king, and 
placed in the courts. Thus were the people guarded from 
the tyranny of bad rulers. 

The charter not only protected the lords and the people 
from the king, but it also protected the people from the 
lords. It was a noble feature of the charter that the 
lords, while enforcing their own rights, at the same time 
took care of the rights of their vassals. They caused it to 
be inserted in the charter that the lords should The rights 
no lono^er compel their vassals to work for them °^ *^® 

'-' '■ common 

without pay, or tax and fine them unjustly. The people, 
vassals were no longer to be imprisoned or otherwise pun- 
ished at the caprice of their lords, but were to be allowed 
a trial by their fellow vassals, just as the lords who were 
charged with offences were to be judged by their fellow 
lords. Thus the charter secured the rights of the lords, of 
the common people, and of the church, at the same time. 
It was forthwith proclaimed in all public places, and 
read in all the churches, so that the people everywhere 
might know what rights they were now entitled to enjoy. 

John hurried from Runnymede to the Isle of Wight, 
beside himself with o^rief and rasfe. No sooner 

° ^ John 

did he find himself at a safe distance from the resists the 



barons and their army, than he began to form ^f^he 



execution 
of the 

schemes to break the charter and to recover his charter, 
lost power. He sent to the Pope, who took sides with 



no YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

him, denounced the charter, suspended Langton from his 
archbishopric, excommunicated the English lords, and 
issued his " interdict " (ordering all the churches to be 
closed) against the city of London. But these commands 
of the Pope were little heeded. The church services con- 
tinued to be held, and the lords continued to maintain the 
charter. John then hired a large number of soldiers from 
abroad, and entered boldly upon a campaign against the 
lords. Civil war began to rage with fury and 
war. (-|g3Qiation through the land. The hired mer- 
cenaries of the king spread havoc wherever they appeared, 
robbing, burning, and killing the people, violating the 
churches, and torturing the priests. Their barbarous con- 
duct only aroused the people to a deeper hatred of their 
perfidious and cruel king. 

The lords, in despair, at last resorted to a dangerous 
expedient. They appealed for help to the French king, 
The barons pi'omising him that, if he would come to their 
call on the j-escuc, they would confer the Eno-lish crown 

French ' •' ° 

for aid. upon Louis, his eldest son. Louis accordingly 
landed in England with a large force, and advanced to 
meet John and his foreign troops. These French inva- 
ders soon conducted themselves in a way to make the 
barons bitterly regret having summoned them. They, 
too, began to commit ravages and outrages wherever they 
went. Louis seized rich domains, and gave them to his 
French followers, and bore himself in a haughty and over- 
bearing manner towards his English allies. Just at this 
time an event occurred which happily put an end to the 
troubles of the English, and brought the civil war to an 
abrupt close. This was the sudden and violent death of 
King John. 



THE GREAT CHARTER. Ill 

It appears that as John was hurrying southward with his 
army to encounter the French, he lost the great- john 
er part of his bao:p:a2:e, and the money and jewels ^^^tens to 

" oo o ' J J encounter 

which he carried with him, by a sudden liigh the French, 
tide in the estuary of The Wash. Even his crown was 
swept away by the rushing waters. This accident over- 
whelmed the miserly king with grief, and he was attacked 
with a furious fever. In spite of this, he imprudently ate 
too much fruit and drank too much cider at dinner. He 
was hastily conveyed to the abbey of Croxton, near New- 
ark. As he lay dying, a terrible fear of his future seized 
him. He eagerly enjoined that, upon his death, he should 
be arrayed and buried in a monk's cowl and gown, in the 
hope that he might thus atone, in the sight of heaven, for 
his misdeeds. Soon after, the tyrant breathed his last 
(1216). In all England no man was found to John's 
mourn his loss. He died unloved and unhon- '^®^^^- 
ored, and the news that he was no more inspired universal 
Joy and relief through the realm he had governed with so 
much cruelty and greed. 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT. 

THE reign of Henry the Third, who succeeded his 
father John (12 16) was one of the longest in English 
history. Henry was only nine years of age when he 
ascended the throne. He continued to rule 
Henry III. ^^j-j^-Q^gj-^ ^ period of no less than fifty-seven years. 
This period was a remarkable one in many respects. It 
witnessed the rise of the English Parliament. It pro- 
duced the first great English philosopher, Roger Bacon. 
It witnessed the widespread religious revival inspired by 
the Franciscan and Dominican friars. It was a period of 
almost constant internal disturbance, but also of almost 
continuous peace with foreign nations. Henry was a w^eak, 
Character good-uaturcd man, pious, extravagant, loving dis- 
of Henry, play, and greedy of money. He had refined 
tastes, being fond of music, poetry, and architecture. But 
he had little fitness for governing, and was indifferent and 
at times hostile to the rights of his people. 

In the early years of his reign, before he had grown to 
manhood, Henry was guided by two able counsellors. 
These were the noble Stephen Lnngton, Archbishop of 
Canterbury, and William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke. It 
was Pembroke who, winning to the young king the alle- 
giance of a large majority of the barons, succeeded in driv- 



THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT. II3 

ing the French prince Louis out of England, and in firmly 
establishing Henry's authority throughout the realm. Ste- 
phen Langton used his influence over the boy king's mind 
to induce him to favor the church and perform religious 
works. By Langton's advice, Henry caused the westmin- 
Westminster Abbey which Edward the Confes- ster Abbey, 
sor had reared to be demolished, and another and far more 
splendid edifice to be begun in its place. The abbey 
which now stands in London is that which Henry designed. 
The young king also made pilgrimages to Canterbury, and 
other shrines of saints. But Langton did not forget that 
he had been the leader of the lords in compelling John to 
grant the Great Charter. He persuaded Henry to adopt 
and confirm the charter, and to act in accordance with it as 
long as Langton lived. 

Unfortunately both for the king and for his subjects, 
this great and good man died just as Henry came Death of 
of age. No more noble or more earnest patriot Langton. 
ever rose in England than Stephen Langton. His death 
left the weak young king without a strong guiding hand. 
Henry soon aroused the hostility of many of his lords and 
of tha common people. He spent money in prodigal 
ways, and laid heavy taxes upon the people in violation of 
the charter. He conceived a fondness for Frenchmen, 
multitudes of whom came over to reap the benefit of his 
favors. Henry gave lands to these foreigners, made them 
lords and bishops, and promoted them over the heads of 
his English courtiers. He thus gave great offence to all 
Fniilish classes. This feelins: was intensified bv 

^ ^ ^ ^ ■' Henry 

the king's submission to the demands of the submits to 

Pope of Rome. The' Pope had taken Henry's 

side, and in return claimed that he should receive one 



114 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

tenth of the movable goods of the EngUsh. This de- 
mand was strenuously resisted, not only by the people, 
but by the barons, and even by many bishops and priests. 

But the Pope did not confine himself to claiming Eng- 
lish money and goods. He also asserted his right to 
appoint Italians to places in the English church. He sent 
many ItaHans over to be bishops, abbots, and priests in 
England. Against this the people protested even more 
bitcerly than they did against the Pope's claim to a tenth 
Troubles in P^rt of their property. Some of the bishops and 
the church, priests rcsistcd the Pope, who excommunicated 
them, and declared an interdict in their parishes. The 
English, on account of these things, were beginning to lose 
their respect for religion, when a great revival, inspired 
by two fervid and eloquent priests. Saint Francis and 
Saint Benedict, took place to bring them back to (he fold 
of the church. Many friars belonging to the orders 
founded by these two holy men came to England, estab- 
lished monasteries and schools, and engaged in dispensing 
active charities among the English poor. 

It was Henry's fondness for foreigners, weakness in 
yielding to the Pope's demands, and greed and prodigal 
use of money, which provoked the great movement that 
The first resulted, durmg his reign, in the formation of 
Parliament. England's first Parliament. Of course Parlia- 
ment did not spring into being all at once. It grew into 
shape gradually, through a period of many years. But at 
the end of Henry's reign it had become, in its essential 
features, very much what the English Parliament of our 
own day is. We have seen how the Witenagemote, or 
council of wise men, came into existence in the early days 
of the Saxon kings ; and how, in process of time, it ex- 



THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT. II5 

panded into the " great council," composed of the chief 
lords, bishops, and abbots, which assembled from time to 
time to advise the king, and which had eventually grown 
more and more powerful in its influence over him. Un- 
der John, this great council had expanded into a large 
body of men, who came from all parts of the kingdom, 
and who, under the Great Charter, had obtained larger 
rights than the councils had ever before possessed. 

Besides the great council, moreover, smaller councils 
had long been in the habit of meeting in the Local 
several counties ; and in time these county coun- councils, 
cils had come to be composed of men who represented, or 
took the place of, the towns or villages in which each lived. 
Thus came into existence the representative feature which 
was to be the basis of the general Parliament, and which 
became developed and settled during the reign of Henry 
the Third. Another new element in forming Parliament 
was that by which not only the great lords and the bish- 
ops, but also land-owners of a lower rank and smaller es- 
tates, obtained a share in the government of the kingdom. 
These smaller land-owners, instead of going to London in 
a body themselves, would meet and choose several of their 
number to represent their interests and wishes in the great 
council ; and these representatives of the coun- Knights of 
ties .are even now called " knights of the shire," *^® ^^''■®- 
just as they were when they first began to sit in Par- 
liament. 

The growth of Parliament was greatly hastened by the 
revolt of the chief lords a^-ainst the kinj^'s extravao^ance 
and other shortcomings. The leader of the re- Revolt of 
volt was a very able man, Simon de Montfort, Montfort. 
Earl of Leicester. Montfort was a Frenchman by birth, 



Il6 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

but was the descendant of an English lord, and had mar- 
ried the king's sister. He had a resolute will and a quick 
temper, with a high sense of honor, a fervid patriotism, a 
sincere piety, aiid an upright character. Henry greatly 
dreaded this vigorous antagonist. It is said that when, 
on one occasion, the king was overtaken by a thunder- 
storm on the Thames, he hastened for shelter into the 
Bishop of Durham's palace, where Montfort happened to 
be. Montfort began to reassure the king, by saying that 
the storm had spent its force. " I fear thunder and light- 
ning not a little, Simon de Montfort," exclaimed Henry ; 
"but I fear you more than all the thunder and lightning 
in the world." Under this great leader, the lords arrayed 
themselves against the king. Already the word " parlia- 
ment " (derived from the French word " parler," to talk) 
had come to be used as the name of the national assembly, 
in place of "great council." 

A Parliament met in London (1258) and demanded that 
Demands of t^"*^ ^Ing should allow twcuty-four of their num- 
pariiament. ]^q^^ j^^|f choscu by himsclf, and half by the 
lords, to find out and correct the abuses of his rule. 
Later another Parliament met at Oxford, wherein the 
council of twenty-four was duly chosen, and the king 
solemnly swore to be guided by its action. But Henry 
only made promises to break them as soon as he dared. 
He placed obstacles in the way of the council, and at last 
persuaded the Pope to release him from the oath he had 
taken to abide by its advice. Then the lords took up arms 
against the king (1263) with Montfort at their head. 

After a brief conflict, both sides agreed to lay the causes 
of their quarrel before the French king, and to abide by 
his judgment as to which should yield to tlie other. The 



THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT. IT/ 

French king decided in favor of Henry, though he added 
that Henry was bound to abide by the pledges Quarrel 
of the Great Charier. But to this decision the t'^^^ween 

Henry and 

lords refused to yield. Again the resort was the lords. 
had to arms. At Lewes, Montfort gained a decisive vic- 
tory over the king, who was himself taken prisoner. This 
victory made Montfort the virtual ruler of England; and 
during the brief period that he held power, he Montfort 
used it wisely and well. One of his first acts ^" power, 
was to call together a new Parliament (1265), and this 
Parliament, for the first time, included all the elements 
which are to be found in that which meets at Westminster 
in our own day. Not only were the great lords, the bish- 
ops and the abbots summoned to attend it in person, but 
the cities, counties and towns of the entire kingdom were 
commanded to send their representatives. Thus we see 
the beginning of the House of Lords and the Division of 
House of Commons. In due time the lords P^^'ii^-inent 

into tw^o 

and bishops sat apart in one House, while the Houses. 
" knights of the shire," representing the counties, and the 
burgesses, representing the towns and villages, sat in the 
other. 

Montfort did not live long to continue his reforms in the 
government. In, the summer of the same year in which 
the first complete Parliament met, he was confronted on 
the battle-field by young Edward, the king's son and heir. 
Montfort was overwhelmingly defeated by the royal forces, 
and was himself slain in a great battle at Evesham. But 
even the death of this brave leader did not quell the roused 
spirit of his followers. They went on sturdily fighting the 
king's troops, and holding out in their castle strongholds. 
At last Prince Edward, who held command of the royal 



Il8 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

army, grew weary of the conflict. He offered terms to 
Prince ^hc rcvolted lords. If they would lay down their 

Edward amis, he told them, they should be restored to 

cames to i i • roi 

terms with their titlcs, powcrs, and domams. The lords, 
the lords. ^^^^ j^^^ ^^^^^ grown sick of fighting, and reluc- 
tantly accepted Edward's terms. And thus, live years 
before King Henry's death, the long civil war came to an 
end. Its result was to give a temporary triumph to the 
royal cause. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

EDWARD THE FIRST. 

"TOURING the long reign of Henry the Third numerous 
J-^ important events, besides the rise of ParHament, took 
place in England. The English people made marked pro- 
gress in education, in intelligence, and in the re- changes in 
linements and comforts of life. The universi- England, 
ties grew rapidly in numbers and influence, were crowded 
with professors and students, widened the range of their 
studies, and became the centres of learned thought and 
discussion. Roger Bacon, England's first great philoso- 
pher, did much by his scientific teaching to dispel the 
superstitions of former ages. It was in this reign that coal 
was first used for fires ; that gold coinage was begun ; and 
that the art of distilling liquors was introduced Death of 
into England. The old king died (1273) ^^ the ^^"^^ "^• 
age of sixty-five, leaving the throne to his son Edward, 
who, at his father's death, was with the crusaders in the 
Holy Land. 

Edward the First, as he is usually called in the roll of 
English sovereigns (though, as we have seen, three Ed- 
wards had reigned before him), was well entitled to the 
surname of " the Great." He was great in the best sense, 
as a good, brave, earnest ruler, who used his brilliant tal- 
ents for the benefit of his people. It is true that Edward 

119 



I20 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

was wilful and loved to exercise power. He was proud of 
Character ^^is Toyal officc aiid autlioritv. He was resolved 
ofEdwardi. ^Q be tlic real governor of his realm. And he 
was of a truly high and kingly nature. He was tall, full of 
dignity, and imposingly handsome in person. His head 
was crowned with dense curls of golden hair; his large 
eyes beamed with spirit and courage. From early youth 
he had shown himself a faithful, devoted son to both fa- 
ther and mother. When he heard, in the remoteness of the 
Holy Land, of the old king's death, he broke into a wild 
paroxysm of grief ; and he brought back to England the 
most costly ornaments with which to adorn his father's 
tomb. 

Edward's prowess and valor, his chivalry of nature and 
bearinii, his sincerity and ardent love of truth, 

Edward be- &' J ) 

lovedbyhis his wlsc and virile intellect, and, above all, his 
su jects. steadfast devotion to the well-being of his peo- 
ple, won their love and admiration, and made them proud 
of him and loyal to him throughout his reign. He was 
sometimes haughty and overbearing, and occasionally re- 
sorted to stern measures. But the Enojlish would fors^ive 
much to so noble and energetic a ruler. Edward adopted 
as his motto, " Keep troth ; " and although he was not al- 
ways true to his word, he remained for the most part faith- 
ful to his motto. He was unusually happy in his marriage. 
Queen Hc had wcdded, when a very young man, a 

Eleanor. Spanish princess, Eleanor. She proved to be all 
that his heart could wish. She was gentle and affection- 
ate, and was greatly beloved by all the people. When she 
died, Edward caused monuments or crosses to be put up 
in several places to her memory. 

The two most strikin": events of Edward's reisfn were the 




KING EDWARD AND QIteen ELEANOR. — Page 130. 



EDWARD THE FIRST. 121 

subjugation of Wales and the attempted conquest of Scot- 
land. It was a heroic period, full of valiant ex- subjugation 
ploits, and of stirring deeds done by doughty °^'^^^^®- 
wairiors. Wales had been more than once conquered 
by the English kings. When Edward came to the throne, 
a part of that country was still under English rule. But 
a much larger part was ruled by native kings, who, while 
they paid homage to the English crown as vassals, yet 
clung obstinately to their right to reign over their Welsh 
subjects. The Welsh remained in many respects a very 
different people from the English. They may almost 
be said to have been a separate race. They were for 
the most part descended from the Britons, who had been 
driven into the fastnesses of the Welsh mountains by the 
invading Saxons. They had always clung to Christianity. 
They were still a rude and warlike, yet a warm-hearted, 
quick-witted, and generous people. They were characterof 
exceedingly fond, from the earliest tiiues, of ti^eweish. 
poetry and music. The Welsh bards and harpers were 
cherished everywhere in their romantic valleys. The 
Welsh dearly loved their mountain land, and fairly hated 
the English for trying to subjugate it. They even hoped 
that some day they might drive the Saxons from the island 
altogether, and restore the rule of the Britons over all 
its territory. 

But Edward was resolved that the whole of the island of 
Britain should be brought under his sway. He wished to 
create an empire which should include both Britain and 
Ireland. Ireland was already conquered. So Edward 
turned his attention to the two countries which lay on the 
west and the north of his dominions. A powerful prince, 
Llewellyn, now reigned in Wales. He had inspired his 



122 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

subjects to resist in every way the encroachments of 
Prince England. Under his leadership the Welsh had 

Llewellyn, become more formidable than ever in arms. 
Edward summoned Llewellyn to do homage to him in 
London. The brave Welsh prince proudly refused ; and 
Edw^ard straightway marched an army into Wales (1277). 
The triumph of the English king was easy. The Welsh, 
though brave, did not possess the virtue of endurance ; 
some of the Welsh princes, moreover, proved faithless 
Submission to Llcwcllyn. Bcforc even a battle had been 
"yn.^^^ fought, Llew'ellyn was forced to submit. He 
went to London and did homage to Edward, paid a 
large fine, and sealed his peace with England by wed- 
ding a daughter of Earl Simon de Montfort. 

This settlement only lasted four years. Then the Welsh, 
under the lead of David, Llewellyn's brother, once more 
broke out into a fierce resistance to their English masters. 
David crossed the borders with a band of mountaineers, 
assailed Hawarden Castle, near Chester, laid waste the 
country and killed the people for miles round about 
(1282). Edward lost no time in crushing this fresh re- 
volt. Two English armies entered Wales at the same 
time ; one from the north, led by the king, and the other 
from the southeast, under the command of two of his 
great barons. At first the fortune of war favored Llew- 
ellyn, who had hastened to take up arms against his 
old enemy. He for a moment stopped Edward's advance 
and hurried southward to check that of the other English 
Completion amiy. Straying from his camp, he was killed 
of the ]^y ^j-j Ki^orlish knio^ht. The loss of their val- 

conquest ■' ° ^ _ 

of Wales, iant prince and chieftain reduced the Welsh 
to despair. Within a year the conquest of the country 



EDWARD THE FIRST. 1 23 

was complete. David was taken, tried for treason and 
sacrilege, and executed. 

Edward had promised the Welsh that, if they would 
submit to him, he would give them a native 

^ The first 

prince to rule over them. He was as good as his Prince of 
word, though he kept it in a different sense from 
that in which the promise was taken by the people. His 
eldest son, Edward, was born at Carnarvon Castle, in 
Wales ; and him he created " Prince of Wales." Ever 
since, the eldest son of the reigning sovereign of England 
has borne this title. Edward no sooner found himself in 
complete possession of Wales, than he devoted his ener- 
gies to giving his new subjects a good government. He 
himself spent several months in Wales ; divided the coun- 
try into counties, and, as far as he could, introduced the 
J^^nglish laws and methods of securing justice. Reforms in 
For all this, the Welsh for a long time continued ^^^^^s. 
restive under English rule, and had to be kept in subjec- 
tion by force of arms. 

It was twelve years' after the conquest of Wales that 
Edward resolved to undertake that of Scotland 

Attempted 

(1296). The people who lived in Scotland were conquest of 
of two races. Those who dwelt between the 
English border and the river Forth — a region which has 
always been called the "Lowlands" — were for the most 
part of English descent. Their customs, language, and 
laws resembled those of England ; and many Norman 
knights and soldiers had settled in the Lowlands after the 
conquest. But north of the river Forth — in the " High- 
lands" — the people were to a large degree of Celtic ori- 
gin, and were nearly related in blood to the Irish. Their 
laws differed completely from those of the Lowlanders. 



124 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

The Highlanders were a sturdy race, hving in huts of 
Character of turf, and being for the most part farmers and 
the Scots, shepherds. They were very brave and obsti- 
nate soldiers, as Edward and his successors had good 
reason to know. The Scots had sometimes so far come 
under the dominion of the English that their kings had 
paid homage as vassals of the English king. But they 
had long been practically independent, and had grown 
into a powerful and flourishing state. 

It happened that while Edward was meditating an at- 
tack on Scotland, the king of that country, Alexander III., 
died without any direct issue, or even any near relative to 
Claimants succccd to the throuc. A fierce dispute arose 
to the amono: several claimants to the succession. Of 

Scottish ° 

crown. these claimants the most prominent were John 
Balliol, John Hastings, and Robert Bruce. They were all 
descended from King Henry, who had died more than a 
century before. At last they agreed to leave the decision 
to Edward of England. Edward took a year to consider 
the matter, and then awarded the crown to John Bal- 
liol, who thereupon assumed the Scottish crown. But 
a cause of quarrel soon arose between the two kingdoms. 
Edward ^ Scottish lord, having failed in a certain law- 
arouses g^^j|- j;,^ade an appeal to Edward to grant him 

the anger ' ' ^ '^ 

of the justice. Edward, claiming to be "lord superior" 

of Scotland, summoned Balliol to London to 
make answer in the suit. Balliol reluctantly obeyed the 
command ; but Edward gave judgment in favor of the lord 
who had appealed to him. 

All this aroused the angry pride of the Scots, who 
stoutly denied Edward's claim to be their lord superior. 
They took advantage of a war in which Edward became 



EDWARD THE FIRST. 125 

involved with France, to make an alliance with the French 
king, and to cross the English border and lay waste the 
fields and villages of Northumberland. The alliance thus 
made between Scotland and France was des- Alliance of 
tined to continue for three centuries. As soon Scotland 

with 

as Edward had concluded his warlike operations France, 
in France, he led a great army across the Scottish fron- 
tier. His advance was rapid and triumphant. He be- 
sieged and captured Berwick, Dunbar, and Stirling, took 
Balliol prisoner, and in a few months had suppressed all 
resistance to his victorious arms. 

But the Scots were by no means conquered, as was 
proved in the following year. William Wallace, the son 
of a small land-owner, a young man of almost wiiiiam 
gigantic stature, handsome, and as bold and waiiace. 
brave as a lion, aroused his countrymen to a desperate 
revolt against their English masters. He swept down 
with his rude mountain bands upon the towns and fort- 
resses held by English troops ; and having quickly recov- 
ered Scotland, he crossed the border, and spread havoc 
with fire and sword through the northern English coun- 
ties. But Edward, at the head of an irresistible force, 
soon returned to meet and overcome the heroic Scot. He 
inflicted a decisive defeat on Wallace at Falkirk. But a 
more formidable foe than Wallace made the victory a bar- 
ren one. Edward's army was overtaken by famine ; and 
the proud king was forced to retire southward, and to 
postpone for five years the hope of restoring his sway in 
Scotland. 

Edward's second conquest of the northern kingdom 
(1303-4) was accomplished as quickly as the ^^ 

first had been. This time he led his army rap- conquestof 
idly to Edinburgh, took Stirling in spite of ob- 



126 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

stinate resistance, and became once more master of the 
country. Edward always showed himself to be a wise and 
far-seeing statesman. Instead of oppressing the Scots 
now that they were again in his power, he promptly set to 
work to make his rule a benefit to them. He called some 
of the greatest Scottish lords into his councils, drew up a 
wise and tolerant code of laws, and appointed Scotsnien 
to the posts of power in their own land. One man only 
Edward could not forgive. William Wallace had b^en 
taken prisoner in the latest war. He was carried to Lon- 
waiiace ^^^o^"** tried for treason, put to terrible torture, 
executed, ^j-,^ finally executed. But ever since, the name 
of Wallace has been embalmed by the Scots in song and 
story, as one of their noblest patriots and heroes. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

EDWARD THE SECOND. 

THE year before Edward the First died another hero 
rose to rekindle the struggle for Scottish freedom 
(1306). This was young Robert Bruce, grandson of the 
Robert Bruce who had contested the crown of Robert 
Scotland with John Balliol. The younger Bruce Bruce, 
had passed his boyhood at the English court. A quarrel 
with the king caused him to fly from London. He has- 
tened to his native country, raised the standard of revolt, 
and had himself crowned king. The Scots were so dis- 
heartened, however, by their past defeats, that Bruce's call 
to arms brought only a few recruits to his standard. With 
these devoted adherents he fought the English with a 
prowess and valor which enshrined his name Bruce-s 
with that of Wallace in the Scottish heart. As heroism, 
long as Edward lived, however, Bruce's attempts to recov- 
er his country's independence were made in vain. The 
English king, though ill and feeble, hastened northward to 
put down the revolt ; and Bruce, with his scattered war- 
riors, was forced to take refuge in the bleak hills of west- 
ern Scotland. 

Not only was Edward the First powerful and victorious 

in war, but as a maker of laws he was the wisest Edward i. 
Ill , -r^ 1. , , as a law- 

sovereign who had ever sat on the English throne, maker. 



128 YOUNG people's ENGLAND, 

A large part of his reign was occupied with the conquests 
of Wales and Scotland ; and now and then he engaged 
in brief wars in France and Flanders. But he found 
time, also, to greatly improve the "English system of gov- 
ernment. At first he resisted the claim of Parliament to 
levy taxes for his use. He was wilful and self-reliant, and 
clung tenaciously, for a while, to his royal powers. But 
several considerations finally induced him to yield to the 
Taxation principle that the taxes should only be levied 
by consent. ^^,j|-|-^ ^\^q conscut of the representatives of those 
upon whom the taxes were to be imposed. From the out- 
set the great barons stoutly resisted Edward's attempts to 
levy taxes by his sole royal will. They were led by a cou- 
rageous noble, the Earl of Hereford, who maintained their 
cause in open opposition to the king, and finally persuaded 
him to concede their demands. 

The wars, too, in which Edward was engaged compelled 
him to go often to his Parliament for the funds necessary 
to support them ; and this necessity resulted in firmly 
Powers of fixing the principle that Parliament should vote 
Parliament. ^|-)g suppHcs. This principle, thas established 
at the close of the thirteenth centur}-, lies at the very 
foundation of the liberties which the English of to-day 
enjoy. In the thirteenth year of his reign Edward sum- 
moned a Parliament <:o meet at Westminster (1295). It 
included all the essential features which mark the Par- 
liament of our own time. It was composed of the lords 
spiritual and temporal, knights of the shire, and bur- 
o-esses of the towns or boroudis. Two years later (1297) 
The char- auothcr Parliament met ; and to this Parliament 
ters affirm- Ed^y^rd oucc morc acknowledged that to it alone 

ed by ^ 

Edward. belonged the right to levy taxes. The two char- 



EDWARD THE SECOND. 1 29 

ters were once more solemnly affirmed by the crown; and 
clauses were added to them, by which the king again gave 
up to Parliament the sole right to lay taxes, and to vote 
the supplies needed to carry on the affairs of the realm. 

One act of severe intolerance sullied the splendor of 
Edward's reign. This was thj banishment of all 
the Jews from the kingdom. Nor was this the ^ ^^^* 
worst. The Jews, as they made haste to leave England, 
were subjected to barbarous cruelty and even to massacre. 
It is just to Edward, however, to say that he sternly pun- 
ished the Englishmen who committed these crimes. Many 
signs of civilized progress appeared during Edward's rule. 
Gunpowder is said to have been invented by the philoso- 
pher, Roger Bacon. Paper was for the first time intro- 
duced and used in England. The mariner's compass was 
received from Italy. Westminster Abbey, after having 
been in process of erection for sixty years, was at last 
completed. Edward died, after a brilliant and Death of 
powerful reign of twenty-four years (1307), while ^^^^ard i. 
on his way to chastise Bruce in Scotland. His body was 
borne to London, and entombed with great solemnity in 
Westminster Abbey. 

The son and successor of this masterful king was entire- 
ly unlike his father in character. Edward of Carnarvon, 
now Edward the Second, was indolent, pleasure- character of 
loving, feeble of will, and lacking in courage and^**^^"^^ "• 
spirit. He had neither the taste nor the capacity for war 
or gov^ernment. Early in his reign he made a weak 
attempt to crush Bruce in Scotland. He led an army 
thither, but his enemy evaded him, and the king was forced 
to return to England. Then Bruce was aroused to fresh 
activity. He swept over the country with his devoted 



130 VOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

Highlanders, until onlv the fortresses of Berwick and Stir- 
ling remained in English hands. Edward, for once dis- 
playing a sudden vigor, hurried with his forces to the relief 
of Stirlins:. The Scots and the English joined 

Battle of ^ , _^ , . . 

Bannock- amis at Banuockbum, and Bruce won a decisive 
^^^'^' victory over his enemy. Edward and his army 

were driven from the field and sought refuge in Berwick, 
the last of his strongholds. A few years later Bruce took 
Berwick also, and even advanced some distance upon 
English ground. He compelled the English king to make 
truce with him, and to acquiesce in Bruce's assumption of 
the Scottish crown. The independence of Scotland was 
thus achieved ; and in the year after Edward's death, by 
the peace of Northampton, England conceded that in- 
dependence, and recognized Bruce's right to the throne 
he had so bravely won. Edward the Second's reign was 
Edward's othcrwisc full of troublc and misfortune. Like 
fondness other wcak kinirs before him, he chose a foreign- 

for for- ^ ' , ^ 

eigners. er as his favorite, and lavished wealth and fa- 
vors upon him. This favorite, whose name was Gaves- 
ton, was flippant and insolent, and soon deeply offended 
the proud lords of Edward's court. His rich costumes, his 
skill in the tournament, his supercilious bearing, kindled 
their fierce resentment. The lords demanded of the king 
that Gaveston should be banished. Edward declined to 
part with his favorite. Then Parliament refused him the 
supplies which he needed for his pleasures and his govern- 
ment. Edward was married to a beautiful and imperious 
French princess, Isabella. She, too, hated Gaveston, and 
joined the lords in their demand for his exile. 

The quarrel soon became exceefUngly bitter. The feeble 
king was at last deprived of his power, which was as- 



EDWARD THE SECOND. I3I 

Slimed by a committee of the lords, who called themselves 
the "Lords Ordainers." A brief civil conflict fol- 

1 1 • .-1111 -1 • • '^^^ lor<l3 

lowed, in which the lords were easily victorious, defeat the 
Gaveston was captured and beheaded without a ^^"^' 
trial. But Edward was incapable of learning a lesson 
from misfortune. He quickly replaced Gaveston by anoth- 
er favorite, in the person of Hugh le Despenser, who was, 
like Gaveston, covetous, arrogant, and extravagant. Queen 
Isabella, incensed at her husband's feebleness Queen isa- 
and foolish devotion to his new^ favorite, left him, ^eiia joins 

' the ene- 

went back to France, and sent for their eldest miesofthe 
son, Edward, to join her in Paris. She lost no 
time in raising an army, at the head of which she once 
more landed in England. There she was joined by the 
English lords and bishops, who made common cause with 
her against the king. Among the lords who hastened to 
Isabella's standard was Roger de Mortimer, a man of 
strong will and of great ambition. Edw^ard was forced to 
fly with his favorite, and sought refuge among the hills of 
Glamorgan. 

The struggle between the lords and the king was brief. 
Both Edward and Le Despenser were captured, and the 
favorite was promptly hung on the spot where he Abdication 
was taken. A Parliament met and compelled ^ndimpris- 

^ onment of 

the king to abdicate in favor of his eldest son. Edward. 
Edward was then imprisoned in Berkeley Castle, where 
in less than a year he was foully murdered, it is supposed 
at the instigation of Isabella and Mortimer (1327). No 
more incapable or unhappy sovereign ever sat upon a 
throne. Edward the Third, who was now king, was but 
fourteen years of age ; and the conduct of the realm re- 
mained for some time in the hands of his mother, Isabella, 



132 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

and Mortimer, who had become Isabella's confederate and 
lover. But they soon came to be heartily detested, both 
Roger t>y the lords and by the people at large. Mor- 

Mortimer, timer proved to be grasping and overbearing. 
The queen was haughty and selfish. When young Edward 
had reached his eighteenth year, he showed his spirit by 
freeing himself from the control of his mother, and taking 
the reins of government into his own hands. Mortimer 
was tried and beheaded for high treason ; and Isabella 
from that time ceased to take any part in the affairs of 
the kino^dom. 



CHAPTER XXriI. 

EDWARD THE THIRD. 

IT is a common opinion in England," wrote the old 
chronicler, Froissart, " that between two valiant kings 
there is always one weak in mind or body." The English 
crown often fell, indeed, alternately to a bad or feeble, 
and then to a powerful king. Thus the brave English 
Richard the First (" the Lion-hearted ") was sue- ^^^ss. 
ceeded by the mean and cruel John, and the weak Henry 
the Third by the great and just Edward the First. So, 
now, the miserable Edward the Second gave place to one 
of the most vigorous and warlike sovereigns who ever sat 
upon the English throne. Edward the Third began to 
reign when he was fourteen, and his reign lasted for fifty 
years ; and that long period was one of almost unexam- 
pled glory to the English arms. It was also re- progress of 
markable for the progress made by the English t^e English, 
people in freedom, customs, comfort, literature, the arts, 
and religious reform. 

Very soon after the third Edward assumed the reins of 
government, Charles the Fair, king of France, Edward's 
died, leavinc: no direct heir. Edward was the ^^^'™, *° ^ 

' •=> the French 

son of Isabella, Charles's sister; and, already crown, 
stirred by a great ambition, he promptly laid claim to the 
crown of France. This claim had no foundation in right 

133 



134 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

for two reasons. According to the French law of succes- 
sion no female could inherit the crown, nor could any 
male inherit who derived his claim from descent through 
a female. Besides, if it were admitted that the title to the 
throne could descend through a female, Charles of Navarre, 
a grandson of King Louis X., Charles's eldest brother, had 
a better title than Edward the Third. So weak, indeed, did 
Edward himself feel his claim to be, that he abandoned it, 
and recognized Philip of Valois, the cousin of Charles, and 
the legal heir, as king of France. Events, however, soon 
occurred to induce Edward to revive his claim, and to 
prosecute it with all the vigor and persistency of his am- 
bitious nature. 

Within a year after Edward's accession, peace was con- 
cluded with Scotland, by which Robert Bruce 

Relations , 

with Scot- was acknowledged king, and the independence 
of Scotland was conceded. A year after this 
peace Robert died (1329), leaving the throne he had so 
valiantly won to his son Dovid, who was an infant only live 
years old. A regency was established to govern Scotland 
until David should come of age. Edward took advantage 
of some troubles on tlie border to undertake the reconquest 
of Scotland. He entered the northern kingdom with his 
army, and had soon seized upon its principal strongholds. 
He seemed on the point of once more extending English 
rule over the entire country, when the French king, Philip^ 
appeared as the ally of the Scots. He sent ships and 
soldiers to their aid, received young Bruce as a guest 
in Paris, and prepared to invade Guienne, in southern 
France, which had long been in the possession of the 
English. 

Edward was aroused to anger and retaliation by what 



EDWARD THE THIRD. 1 35 

he deemed the perfidy of the French king. He once more 
put forward his claim to the French crown, and -y^-ar with 
made all haste to support it by force of arms. France. 
Then began that long and mighty struggle between France 
and England, which, by reason of its duration, is known in 
history as the "hundred years' war." It was not, indeed, a 
continuous struggle throughout that long period. There 
were intervals of armistice and peace, and several treaties 
were meanwhile concluded between the combatants. But 
the war did not come to an end until, more than a century 
after it was begun by Edward, the English claim to the 
French crown was finally abandoned. The events of this 
war which occurred during Edward's reign may be rapid- 
ly stated. The conflict opened in Flanders, from campaign 
which country Edward sought to invade the do- ^"^ Flanders, 
minions of his enemy. He had as allies not only the 
Flemings, but the German emperor. But the only note- 
worthy success gained in his first campaign was a naval 
victory over the French off the Flemish coast. Two 
years later (1343) Edward led a large army into invasion of 
Brittany, where he went to aid John de Montfort, ^"ttany. 
who claimed the dukedom of Brittany against Charles of 
Blois, who was supported by King Philip. But it was not 
until four years after his invasion of Brittany that Edward 
won his first great and decisive victory. In the midsum- 
mer of 1346 he crossed the Channel with thirty thousand 
men, and rapidly advanced along the river Seine towards 
Paris. Philip promptly set out from the capital to check 
him with a force of one hundred thousand men. The 
English found it necessary to pass the river, and at last, 
after much difficulty, found a ford, which they crossed in 
the face of the French troops posted on the opposite side. 



136 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

Edward continued his march along the river banks until 
he had reached a place called Crecy. Here he halted to 
Battle of await the onset of his foe. The English forces 
Crecy. were arrayed in three divisions, commanded res- 

pectively by Edward Prince of Wales, the earl of Northamp- 
ton, and the king. The shock of battle was fearful. The 
English archers were pitted against fifteen thousand Geno- 
ese cross-bowmen, and after an obstinate conflict repulsed 
them. Then the French, under the Count of Alen^on, 
fell with fury upon the Prince of Wales's division. This 
prince, Edward's eldest son, was then but sixteen years of 
ao^e. But in this, his first battle, he displayed 

Edward ^ , , . 1 , . , r i 

the Black the prowcss and chivalry which afterwards won 
him high renown as the " Black Prince." At 
the moment when the attack of the French upon his col- 
umns was most furious, the king was besought to send 
succor to his son. "What," cried the king, "is my son 
'wounded or unhorsed? " "No,"' was the reply; "but he 
is terribly pressed by the enemy." " Well," said Edward, 
"go back and say that I will not send so much as a sol- 
dier to help my son ; for I am resolved that the boy shall 
this day win his spurs and gain the glory and honor of 
the fight." 

The result of the battle of Crecy was a complete victory 
for the English. The blind king of Bohemia, a brave ally 
of the French, was slain ; Philip fled from the field on his 
horse ; more than thirty thousand Frenchmen and Geno- 
ese lay dead upon the scene of conflict ; and the proud 
legions of France were driven in confusion in all direc- 
tions. The victorious king marched upon Calais, and 
Siege of after an obstinate siege of nearly a year entered 
Calais. ^^^^ town. The stubborn defence of Calais 



EDWARD THE THIRD. 13/ 

had greatly incensed him, and at first he threatened to 
wreak his vengeance on the inhabitants. But at last he 
consented to accept six leading citizens, with whom he 
might do as he pleased. When these citizens came into 
his camp, with bare heads and feet, and with ropes around 
their necks, Edward sternly ordered them to be executed. 
But Edward's gentle queen, Philippa, fell on interces- 
her knees before her lord, and besouo-ht him to ^^°" °^ 

' * Queen 

have mercy on the brave citizens. " Ah, lady," Pbmppa. 
exclaimed the king, " so sweetly have you pleaded, that I 
can refuse you nothing." So the citizens were spared, 
and, after having been royally feasted by the queen, de- 
parted free men. 

The English were now satiated with triumph, and the 
French were exhausted ; so that active warfare almost 
ceased for a long period. In the mean time the Scots 
grew bold, and invaded the northern counties of England. 
But an English force under Percy and Neville hastened to 
join battle with them. The Scots were completely defeat- 
ed, and their young king, David, who had returned from 
France to head the invasion, was taken prisoner and car- 
ried to England. He remained a captive for eleven years. 
About this time there came a terrible affliction on the 
English. An epidemic, called the ''Black Death," spread 
through the kingdom, and committed ravages The " Black 
among the people far more terrible than the ^^^^^" 
most destructive war. It is said that nearly one half of 
the population of England perished by the Black Death 
within a year (1349). 

Nine years after the battle of Crecy, war again broke 
out between the English and the French with all its for- 
mer fury. King Philip of France was dead, and his son 



138 YOUNG PEOPLE'S ENGLAND. 

John reigned in his stead. Edward the Black Prince was 
governing Guienne, that southern province of France which 
had long been held by the English. The first act which 
led to fresh hostilities came from him. The Black Prince 
crossed the northern frontier of Guienne with a force of 
eight thousand men, and entered the province of Poitou, 
where he committed depredations far and wide, seizing 
the goods of the people. On returning southward, the 
prince found himself brought to bay by a great French 
army of sixty thousand, commanded by King John in per- 
Battie of ^^"> which barred his passage. One of the most 
Poitiers. memorable battles of history, the battle of Poi- 
tiers, ensued (1356). The Black Prince stationed his little 
force. of archers on either side of a ravine, and as the 
French advanced they fell in hundreds beneath the Eng- 
lish arrows. Then the Prince charged impetuously upon 
the foe with his mounted men-at-arms, utterly routed the 
remainder of the French army, took king John and his son 
prisoners, and returned to Guienne in triumph. A few 
Royal months after the Black Prince went to England, 

captives. taking King John with him as a captive. Thus 
two kings, David of Scotland and John of France, were 
prisoners at the same time in London. 

Another long lull now intervened in the great war be- 
tween the two nations. A treaty of peace was made, by 
which the English were given possession of Poitou in addi- 
tion to Guienne. These two provinces included a large 
part of southwestern France. King John agreed to pay 
a heavy ransom for his liberty, and returned to France to 
raise the required sum. Failing to do this, he again gave 
himself up to his captor, and some time after died in the 
Savoy Palace in London. Edward, in return for the 



EDWARD THE THIRD. 



139 



French concessions, abandoned his claim to the French 
crown. This treaty was called the treaty of Bre- Treaty of 
tigny (1360). During the interval of peace Bretigny. 
which followed, the Black Prince, wdiose deeds of prowess 
had won for him the ardent admiration and affection of 
his father's subjects, engaged in a war in Spain, which led 
indirectly to a resumption of that between France and 
England. In order to carry on his Spanish operations, 
the prince wrung heavy taxes from the people of Guienne, 
over whom he was set as governor. In their despair 
the oppressed people appealed to Charles, who had be- 
come king of France on the death of his father John, 
and Charles promptly espoused their cause 

The war assumed a monotonous and uneventful charac- 
ter. There were no great battles, like those of Crecy 
and Poitiers ; but for a long period the operations of the 
hostile forces were confined to skirmishes and alternate 
devastation of the country. The tide of war now turned. 
The Black Prince, brave and chivalrous as he was, com- 
mitted many acts of cruelty in the French provinces over 
which he ruled. After taking Limoges, he caused its peo- 
ple to be ruthlessly massacred. These deeds aroused the 
hatred of the inhabitants, and they rose in revolt against 
him. ThB Black Prince fell desperately ill, and mness and 
at last w^as forced to mve up fi2:htin2f. He re- *^^^*^ °^ 

==" i & & tjie Black 

turned to England, where he lingered, ill and Prince, 
worn out, for six years. Then he died (1376) amid the 
universal grief of the English, who had adored him as the 
very personification of valiant knighthood. 

King Edward only survived his brave son and heir a 
year. He had grown old and feeble, and in the latter 
part of his reign affairs had gone badly, both on the scene 



140 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

of war in France, and at home in England. The French 
had won back the i^reater part of the provinces 

Last year , . 

of Edward which English valor had wrested from them; 
while in England the royal power had for some 
time been really exercised by John of Gaunt, the king's 
fourth son, who was greatly disliked by the people. Par- 
liament stoutly opposed John's rule, and had grown so 
strong that it compelled him to yield to its will. After a 
reign of fifty years the old king passed away (1377). The 
loss of the Black Prince had broken his heart. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 

THE century covered by the reigns of the first three 
Edwards was notable for the progress of the English 
people in many ways. It witnessed the dawn of 

^ '^ ■' •' _ A progres- 

a national literature, and the beginning of a great sive cen- 
religious upheaval. It added many comforts and ^'^^^' 
refinements to domestic life. It marked a distinct advance 
in political liberty and in the growth of the powers of Par- 
liament. It changed for the better the social condition of 
the Ipwer classes. It improved the arts already known, 
and contributed new arts to popular pleasures and occu- 
pations. It saw English come into more and more gen- 
eral use as the language of all ranks of society. 

During its period Parliament not only maintained its 
sole right to levy taxes, but acquired other and novel 
powers. It ratified treaties, and its advice was Growth of 
sought by the kings when they thouo:ht of mak- *^® power 

o J t:> J is of Parlia- 

ing war or concluding peace. To some extent at ment. 
least, it enacted laws for the government of the kingdom. 
It acquired the habit of making the king pledge himself 
to "redress grievances," as a condition of voting him the 
money he needed. Toward the end of Edward the Third's 
reign. Parliament established the right to impeach any 
official of the crown before his peers. A very important 

141 



142 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

change took place in the constitution of Parhament in the 
time of this king. It was divided for the first 

Division 

into two time into two Houses, which sat separately. 
The lords, bishops, and abbots composed the 
upper House, and the knights of the shires and burgesses, 
representing the towns and villages, formed the lower 
House. Thus there became a distinct House of Lords 
and a distinct House of Commons, as they exist to-day. 

The first famous names in English literature appear in 

the history of the century of which we are speaking. There 

had previously lived chroniclers, historians, and some 

poets : but Sir John Mandeville, who wrote a 

Early r ? J ^ - 

English quaint book of travels, William Langlande, the 
author of "Piers Plowman," Geoffrey Chaucer, 
who wrote the "Canterbury Tales,'' and Gow^er, were the 
first Englishmen who produced books of literary skill and 
permanence. All these, moreover, are notable as having 
written in English ; the older chroniclers and poets con- 
fined themselves to Latin or French. Chaucer was the 
greatest of this group. He had rare genius as a poet, 
and the " Canterbury Tales," which preserve to us a vivid 
picture of the times and customs of the third Edward, are 
still read and enjoyed wherever the English language is 
spoken. 

The upper classes, in the course of years, had become 

more refined in taste and more elegant in manners. It 

had become a part of the education of young 

Condition of i J ts 

the upper peoplc of rank to be taught how to bear them- 
selves in company, at the table, in their recrea- 
tions, and in the family circle. They were trained not to 
spill their food, or stare, or put their elbows on the table. 
The young men were taught how to ride horseback, to be 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. I43 

skilful in the use of arms and in the tournament, to sing 
and play on musical instruments, to carve at table, to read 
and write, and to dance. In the universities, which were 
almost always thronged with students, the stud- 
ies had become much wider in range, and more 
thorough in treatment. Philosophy, metaphysics, logic, 
history and the languages were diligently pursued. As- 
trology, which, it was believed, enabled men to read for- 
tune and the future in the position and movements of the 
stars, and alchemy, which was thought to give men the 
power of making gold, were eagerly studied. These sci- 
ences were the result of ignorance and superstition ; but 
they had a valuable use, for out of them grew the true 
and noble sciences of astronomy and chemistry. 

As civilization advanced and the arts matured, the Eng- 
lish upper classes became more luxurious in their habits. 
This appeared in fondness for display in dress Luxury m 
and in jewelry, in the lavish expenditure on England, 
feasts and merrymaking, and in the show and numbers of 
the great people's households. So prevalent did this fond- 
ness for display become, that Parliament made sumptuary 
laws regulating what sort of clothes each rank ^^'^^• 
in society should wear. The king amd his relatives alone 
might wear ermine and pearls. The lords and knights 
and their wives and daughters were allowed to adorn 
themselves with cloth of gold or silver. The lesser gentry 
were restricted to cloth and ornaments of silver. All be- 
low this rank were forbidden to put on silk, or to wear 
jewelry of any kind. The food of the upper classes, which 
comprised beef, game, fish, and many sorts of wine and 
ale, was always highly spiced, and filled their hospitable 
tables in lavish abundance. 



144 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

The lower classes lived to a great extent on salted meats 
and coarse bread. 

There was a great deal of misery among the very poor 
in the time of the third Edward. They were 

Condition 

of the very much oppresscd by the rich. They were bur- 
dened with the taxes which went to support Ed- 
ward's foreign wars. Their food was scant and poor in 
quality. They were doomed to unceasing labor in order to 
keep body and soul together. Yet the condition of the 
peasantry was in some respects far better than it had been 
formerly. Many of the serfs had been able to throw off 
Decrease of their boudagc, and to become freemen, owning 
serfdom. HhIq patchcs of grouud for themselves, which 
they industriously tilled. It had become the custom for the 
peasant, instead of serving his lord whenever called upon, 
in return for his land, to pay rent for it. The lord then 
hired laborers on wages to till his acres for him. Thus 
there was gradually formed a large body of small freehold 
farmers, who had once been serfs. In the third Edward's 
reign the English began for the first time to weave wool ; 
and this added a new and very thriving industry to the 
occupations of the people. The weaving of wool was 
taught the English by some Flemish weavers, whom the 
king summoned to England for the purpose. 

The most important event of the third Edward's reign, 
if we consider its results, was the attack made by John 
John Wycliffe on the Papal Church. Wycliffe was a 

wyciiflfe. priest, who for a long time presided over Balliol 
College, Oxford. He was devout, learned, and very bold 
and earnest. He began his stormy career as a reformer 
by publicly rebuking the worldliness, self-indulgence, and 
indolence which now widely prevailed among the clergy, 




WYCLIFFE ON HIS WAY TO THE COUNCIL. — Page 145. 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. I45 

and especially among the friars. The friars had once 
been pious and zealous, and had done much to 

Corruption 

instill piety into the people. But in course of of the 
time many of them had become corrupt and ^ ^^^^' 
neglected their religious work. The higher clergy, too, 
had become in many instances grasping and greedy of 
wealth and power. Wycliffe wrote and preached against 
these vices, and thus aroused great numbers of his fellow 
priests and the friars against him. He found, however, a 
powerful protector in John of Gaunt, who virtually wielded 
the royal power in the last years of his father, King Ed- 
ward. John had political reasons for opposing the priest- 
hood, and so encouraged the fearless Oxford scholar in 
his assaults upon them. 

Wycliffe next attacked the Pope himself. There w-as at 
this time a schism in the Roman church, and 

■Wycliffe 

two rival Popes claimed the allegiance of the assaiis the 
people. One, a Frenchman, had his court at °^^" 
Avignon, in France ; the other was at Rome. The hos- 
tility of the English towards the French impelled them to 
reject the French, and to accept the Roman pontiff. But 
Wycliffe opposed the Pope whom the English supported. 
For this offence he was summoned before a council of 
bishops in St. Paul's Cathedral. He went attended by 
John of Gaunt and Lord Percy. In the council a bitter 
controversy took place between Percy, who defended Wy- 
cliffe, and the bishop of London, which resulted in the 
breaking up of the assembly in great disorder. A year 
after, another council was held at Lambeth, also con- 
vened to try Wycliffe; but the people broke tumultu- 
ously into it, and again the heretic escaped the wrath of 
his enemies. 



146 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

Hitherto Wycliffe had confined himself to denouncing 
the habits and vices of the clergy, and the political claims 
Wycliffe at- ^f the Popcs. He had not assailed the doctrines 
tacks the q£ ^j^e church. But now he bes^an to question 

doctrines of *=" ^ 

the church, the doctriucs themselves. He first attacked the 
doctrine of "transubstantiation," or the turning of bread 
and wine into the body and blood of Christ. Then he 
threw doubts upon the sacredness of pilgrimages, the right 
of the priests to pardon sins, the propriety of worshipping 
saints and paying homage to their images. So bold did 
he become in* these attacks that he lost his powerful 
friends, the chief of whom was John of Gaunt. Wycliffe 
wyciiffe's ^^'^^ at last bauishcd from Oxford, and took up 
banishment |-,-g ^^^odc in a Small country parish at Lutter- 

from Ox- -^ ^ 

ford, and worth. Thcncc he was summoned to appear 
before the Pope at Rome ; but he was too old 
and feeble to obey the summons. Soon after, he was 
stricken down with paralysis as he stood at the altar of his 
little church, and died in a few hours (1384). 

The great work of Wyciiffe's life was the translation of 

the Bible from Latin into English. For a long time it 

had been the policy of the church to confine the 

Translation ^ -^ 

of the reading of the Bible to the priesthood. It was 

claimed by the Popes that the people could not 
comprehend the Bible if they read it by themselves, and 
that it was necessary that the priests, who were men of 
learning, should explain it to them as it was read. W}'- 
cliffe, however, placed the Bible within the reach of all who 
could read, and who were rich enough to buy copies of it. 
At that time printing had not been invented. All copies 
of books had to be written, and consequently they were 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. I47 

very expensive. Only those who were well ofif, therefore, 
could afford to buy Wycliffe's Bible. His translation was 
bitterly opposed by the bishops and clergy ; but it spread 
through the kingdom, and did much, in the course of 
years, to hasten and mature the cause of religious refor- 
mation. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

RICHARD THE SECOND. 

RICHARD the Second, who ascended the throne as 
the successor of Edward the Third (1377), was the 
only child of the Black Prince, and hence was Edward 
the Third's grandson. He was eleven years old at the 
time of his accession, and his reign covered the brief pe- 
riod of twelve years. At first the government of the king- 
dom was carried on by the Duke of Gloucester, a younger 
son of Edward the Third ; but while the king was still in 
his teens he took the reins of pow'er into his ow^n hands. 
Character of Richard was comcly in person, warm-hearted, 
Richard II. ^^-,j bravc. Hc lovcd show and splendor, and 
spent money lavishly. As he grew up, he became haugh- 
ty, obstinate, and revengeful ; and tried, though in vain, to 
recover the royal power which had been restricted by the 
rise of Parliament. At first beloved by the people, he 
soon became one of the most unpopular monarchs who 
ever sat upon the English throne. 

Early in Richard's reign the working classes through- 
out England rose in revolt asjainst the oppres- 

Revolt of . ^ ^ ^^ 

the work- sious of the crowu. This revolt is memorable 
mg c asses. .^^ history as the rebellion of Wat Tyler. For a 
long period the peasants and working people of the towns 
had suffered severe hardship and misery ; and they had 

148 



RICHARD THE SECOND. I49 

been ver}^ restive under the taxes which had been wrung 
from them for carrying on the war in France. At last a 
tax was levied by the king, with the consent of Parliament, 
which aroused the poor people to active resistance. It was 
voted that every person in England over fifteen years of 
age should pay at least twelvepence into the royal trea- 
sury. No sooner had this tax been levied than risings 
among the peasantry took place simultaneously in various 
parts of the kingdom. The laborers of Essex, Yorkshire, 
Suffolk, Norfolk, Hertford, Devon, and notably of Kent, 
gathered in warlike bands, and openly resisted their op- 
pressors with arms in their hands (138 1). 

The leaders of this formidable revolt were Wat Tyler, 
Jack Straw, and a hot-headed priest named John Leaders of 
Ball. Tyler led the men of Kent, and with his *^« ^«^°"- 
undisciplined columns advanced on London. The young 
king quickly took alarm at the insurrection, which seemed 
to spread at once through every part of his kingdom. The 
merchants shut the gates of London upon Tyler's rabble ; 
but so great was the agitation within the city, that at last 
the rebellious multitude was admitted. They rushed fu- 
riously through the streets, pillaging and murdering, sack- 
ing the houses of nobles, and burning the Savoy palace, the 
residence of the hated John of Gaunt. Richard, courageous 
though a mere lad, now performed the most cou- conduct of 

*^ ' '■ the young 

rageous and generous act of his life. He per- king, 
suaded Tyler and his men to retire to an open space out- 
side London, promising to meet them there and listen 
patiently to their demands. 

Attended by only a few courtiers, the young king en- 
trusted himself to the mercies of an angry body of sixty 
thousand insurgents. The leaders boldly presented to 



150 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

him four petitions. They demanded to be freed, one and 
all, from their serfdom to the great estates ; to be par- 
doned, every man, for rising in revolt ; to be allowed free 
markets everywhere for barter and sale ; and that the 
price of arable land should be fixed at fourpence an acre. 
Quelling Richard promptly granted each of these peti- 
the revolt. ^Jqus, and the multitude which had clamored 
around him peacefully retired. All would have gone well 
but for a number of the insurgents who had remained with- 
in the citv limits. Here the rioting and carnao^e continued. 
The Archbishop of Canterbury, the king's treasurer, and 
many other notable men were killed, and public buildings 
were savagely attacked. Once more Richard tried to ap- 
pease the wrath of the insurgents. He went with a few 
retainers to Blackheath, where he held parley with Wat 
Death of Tvlcr himsclf. While they were talking, sud- 
wat Tyler. ^|g,-,|^^, Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, fell 
upon Wat Tyler and killed him on the spot. The king 
was now in the greatest peril, for Tyler's angry followers 
became furious, and were eager to avenge his death. But 
Richard's presence of mind stood him in good stead. Ad- 
vancing toward the angry crowd, he shouted, " 1 am your 
king; I will be your leader." 

Strange to say, this brave speech at once quelled the 
rioters. They permitted Richard to lead them away, and 
gradually broke up and departed to their several homes. 
So prompt a submission deserved a better return than 
Richard made. He broke his solemn pledge to carry out 
the demands which had been pressed upon him. He 
caused Ball, Straw^ and many other leaders of the people 
to be beheaded. Serfdom was not at once abolished, and 
the price of land was not restricted. But the revolt at least 



RICHARD THE SECOND. I5I 

caused the hateful poll tax to be abandoned. Its remote 
effect, moreover, was to secure greater liberties Effect 
to the common people. Gradually the system of the 

'^ _ ' ■' people s 

of villeinage, by which the peasant was bound to revolt. 
serve the owner of the land he tilled, gave way to the sys- 
tem of free tenantry and hired labor. The people had 
become aware of their power ; and after Wat Tyler's re- 
bellion they were never so grievously oppressed as they 
had been before. 

Other troubles soon ensued to disturb Richard's rule. 
Religious agitation continued, and assumed two Religious 
entirely different phases. On the one hand, the agitation. 
Pope continued to assert claims over the English church, 
which Parliament stoutly resisted. He appointed bishops 
and abbots to offfciate in England, and demanded that 
they should be allowed to perform their functions. At 
last the House of Commons passed a law, which was 
called "the law of praemunire" (1393). It forbade any 
person to publish the Pope's decrees in England, or to at- 
tempt to exercise any power whatever in the Pope's name. 
Those who violated this law were condemned to forfeit 
their property to the king. On the other hand, the fol- 
lowers of Wycliffe had grown to be a formidable body. 
They included not only large numbers of the common peo- 
ple throughout the kingdom, but many nobles and cour- 
tiers. They came to be known as " Lollards ; " The loi- 
a name probal^Iy given to them by their enemies, ^^''^s. 
since the word meant those who "lolled" about indolent- 
ly. The Lollards had one powerful friend in the queen, 
Anne of Bohemia. But they were subjected to persecu- 
tion by Parliament, and for many years suffered bitterly 
for their heresy. 



152 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

Meanwhile, the war wkh France went on in a languid 

way, until the ninth year of Richard's reign (1396), when 

he concluded a truce of twenty-eight years with the French 

king. Richard made several attempts to subdue the Irish, 

and to reconcile them to the Enojlish rule. Soon 

Richard's . 111 

visit to Ire- after he took into his own hands the royal pow- 
er, he went to Ireland, held counsel with the 
Irish princes, and used every effort to persuade the people 
to adopt the English manners, customs, and even dress. 
At first his efforts seemed successful ; but no sooner had 
he departed, than the Irish princes and people returned 
to their old turbulent ways. After the conclusion of 
peace with France, Richard again turned his attention to 
Ireland, He once more crossed the Irish Channel, and 
set about restoring order among the hostile and semi-bar- 
barous clans. This visit to Ireland proved a fatal misfor- 
tune to the king; for it was during his absence there that 
the events occurred which cost him his throne. 

Widespread discontent at many of Richard's acts had 
General growu up, not ouly amoug the people, but in Par- 
discontent. Jiament, and among the powerful nobles. His 
extravagance and love of pomp were bitterly denounced. 
He had tried to recover the old royal power, and to sub- 
due Parliament to his will. He had become arbitrary and 
overbearins:. His treaty with the French was 

Richard's * ■' 

unpopular- almost univcrsally condemned ; and his second 
^*^' marriage with a French princess who was a mere 

child was equally unpopular. And now he had made 
inveterate enemies in the royal family itself. His uncle 
the Duke of Gloucester, the most ambitious and able of the 
living sons of Edward the Third, who had controlled the 
affairs of the realm while Richard was under age, op- 




RETlUVrilAL OF I'llL: I-'RENCII PRINX^ESS TO RICHARD II. — Page 153. 



RICHARD THE SECOND. I 5 3 

posed the treaty with France with all his might. Richard 
caused the duke to be seized and thrown into the castle of 
Calais. Soon after it was given out that Gloucester had 
died in an apoplectic fit. But it was universally believed 
in Eno^land that he had been slain bv order of the kinir. 

A yet more redoubtable enemy of Richard soon after 
appeared in the person of his cousin, Henrv of 

^' ^ ' •' Henry of 

Bolingbroke, the eldest son and heir of John of Boiing- 
Gaunt. Richard had chosen, as the heir to suc- 
ceed him on the throne, Roger Mortimer, the grandson 
of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, who was the third son of Ed- 
ward the Third. Mortimer, indeed, was the rightful heir 
according to the law of hereditary succession; for while he 
was descended from the third son of Edward, Henry of 
Bolingbroke was descended from John of Gaunt, who was 
Edward's fourth son. Roger Mortimer was dead, and his 
son, Edmund, was still a child; while Henry of Boling- 
broke was an able man and was everywhere popular. 
His manners were gracious towards every one, high or 
low. The common people liked him because he talked 
freely with them, and treated a mechanic or a peasant as 
politely as he did a lord. 

Bolingbroke looked upon the choice of Mortimer as the 
heir as an affront to himself. The breach between the roy- 
al cousins was widened by a bitter quarrel which BcUng- 
took place between Bolin2:broke and the Duke I'roke's 

^ '^ quarrel 

of Norfolk. Each charged the other with being a with 

11- A 1 11 1 r 1 Norfolk. 

traitor to the king. A challenge to combat fol- 
lowed, and the antagonists met, in presence of a great as- 
semblage of courtiers and notables, to settle their dispute 
by prowess of arms. When they were about to attack each 
other, the king stopped them. Sternly reprimanding them 



154 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

for their conduct, he banished Norfolk from England for 
life, and Bolingbroke for six years (1398). Soon after 
Bolingbroke left the country, his father, John of Gaunt, 
died, and Richard seized his estates and took them for 
his own. 

This confiscation of his property aroused Bolingbroke to 
Bolingbroke opeu rebellion. Richard was heartily detested 
rebels. |^y jj-^^ nation, and Bolingbroke was more than 
ever beloved by reason of his banishment. The Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, who had also been driven into exile, 
joined hands with Bolingbroke, Taking advantage of 
Richard's absence in Ireland, the rebellious prince land- 
ed in the north of England, and straightway adherents 
flocked to him from every direction. Great nobles like the 
Duke of Northumberland and Lord Westmoreland came 
into his camp, followed by a host of armed retainers; and 
as Bolingbroke advanced towards London, the Duke of 
York himself, who was acting as regent in Richard's 
absence, gave in his adhesion to the revolt. 

Richard ' ^ 

taken pris- Richard hurried back from Ireland only to be 
taken prisoner by Bolingbroke's followers in 
Wales. He was brought captive to London, shut up in 
the Tower, and there forced to sign his abdication of the 
throne in Bolingbroke's favor. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

RICHARD the Second was the last of the Plantagenet 
Hue of kings. With Bolingbroke, who ascended the 
throne with the title of Henry the Fourth, the line of Lan- 
castrian kings began. Henry was descended from the 
Dukes of Lancaster through his mother ; his father, John 
of Gaunt, having assumed that title after his father-in-law's 
death. So Henry and his successors were known as the 
"House of Lancaster." Henrv was not content 

^ Henry's 

to rest his possession of the throne merely upon title to the 
Richard's forced abdication in his favor. He 
knew that a title derived in this way would be a slen- 
der one at best. So he submitted the case to Parlia- 
ment. A long list of the grievances of the nobles and the 
people against Richard was read to the Commons, and 
Richard's abdication was placed before them. Richard 
was then solemnly deposed by act of Parliament ; Henry 
was acknowledged as king ; and he was duly consecrated 
by the two archbishops. Thus the principle that Parlia- 
ment might depose one king and set up another, in an 
extreme case, was established in England (1399). 

Henry the Fourth was both an able and a popular prince ; 
yet his brief reign of fourteen years was full of character of 
turmoil and trouble. The Parliamentary sane- ^^"'•y ^^■ 

155 



T56 YOUNG PEOPLK's ENGLAND. 

tion of his title did not, after all, make his tenure of the 
throne secure. He was still, in the eyes of very many 
Englishmen, a usurper. Richard was a prisoner in Ponte- 
fract castle. He had still many friends, and might at any 
time escape and put himself at their head. Young Morti- 
Henry's meY, too, after Richard, had an undoubted right 
rivals. ^Q j.|-^g throne by hereditary succession. The 
new king was sadly perplexed how to deal with these two 
rivals. At last it was announced that Richard had sud- 
denly died at Pontefract. Many people at once suspected 
tliat, like Edward the Second and the Duke of Gloucester, 
he had come to his death by foul means. Henry was ac- 
cused of having connived at his murder. For a long time, 
moreover, people refused to believe that Richard was 
dead. Henry kept young Mortimer near him at court, in 
a sort of gentle captivity ; and thus was able to prevent 
him from asserting his right to the throne. 

In order to strengthen his position, Henry took care to 

keep on good terms with Parliament and with the church. 

His father, John of Gaunt, had been the powerful protector 

of Wycliffe and his followers. Henrv took the di- 

Henry hos- ^ ^ 

tile to the rectly opposite course with regard to the Lollards. 
He joined Parliament and the bishops in sternly 
repressing them. Early in his reign laws were passed and 
]3ut into execution which empowered the bishops to try 
|)ersons who were charged with heresy. Those who were 
found guilty were burned in a public place. If a Lollard 
lecanted and returned to the church, he was pardoned ; 
but if he became a heretic a second time, he wms promptly 
condenmed and executed. The first victim of this law 
was a priest named William Sawtre. After being dejorived 
of his sacred office, he was burned at Smithfield before a 
large concourse of people. 



THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 1 5/ 

During Henry the Fourth's reign, his kingdom was dis- 
turbed by several risings and revolts. The ad- 

^ ° Revolts 

herents of Richard, declaring that he was still against 
alive, tried to induce the people to rebel and ^'^^^' 
drive Henry from the throne. Some of the great northern 
lords called their vassals to arms to resist Henry's author- 
ity. Among these was the noble family of Percy. The 
bravest of the Percys was Harry, called Hotspur. He led 
a valiant force against the king; but was defeated and 
killed in the battle of Shrewsbury (1403), made famous by 
Shakespeare's play. A few years later Hotspur's father, 
the Earl of Northumberland, met a similar fate at Bram- 
ham Moor. The Welsh, under a very bold and owenGien- 
warlike native prince, Owen Glendower, for years ^ower. 
held out against the English from behind their wild moun- 
tain fastnesses ; but were finally overcome in the succeed- 
incf reiiin. 

o o 

Although Scotland had not engaged in open war with 

Henr}', it had sympathized with, and to some extent aided, 

the rebellions of Percy and Glendower. It so „ 

^ _ The Scot- 

happened that James, the young heir to the tish king 

Scottish throne, fell into the hands of the Eng- ^^^p*'^^' 
lish at sea. He was brought to London, and while a pris- 
oner there became king of Scotland by his father's death. 
He remained a captive in England for eighteen years. 
James was a scholar and a poet. He married an English 
lady, and on his return to Scotland ruled wisely and justly 
over his hardy people. Some of his nobles, however, were 
against him, and finally put him to death. During the 
reign of Henry the Fourth a terrible plague swept over 
P^.ngland, and it is said that thirty thousand people per- 
ished by this terrible disease (1407). Henry the Fourth' 



I5S YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

died (1413) in the Jerusalem Chamber, Westminster Ab- 
Death of bey. It had been foretold that he would "die in 
Henry IV. Jerusalem." As he lay ill in the chamber of that 
name, he asked where he was. On being told, he mur- 
mured, " Now I know I shall die in this Chamber, since it 
was prophesied I should die in Jerusalem." 

Henry of Monmouth, who now ascended the throne as 
Henry the Fifth, was one of the most brilliant, attractive, 
and triumphant kings v»'ho ever ruled over the 
^^^^ ' English realm. Plis reign, though brief, was a 
glorious one. As a young prince, he had been wild and 
full of noisy pranks. At the same time he was generous, 
high-spirited, and princely, both in personal appearance 
and in manners. On one occasion, he was committed to 
prison by Chief Justice Gascoyne, for contempt of court ; 
and so gracefully did he submit to the punishment that 
his father, the king, thanked God joyously that he had a 
son who so willingly obeyed the law. When he succeeded to 
the throne, however, Henry put aside the gay companions 
of his roystering days, and assumed all the propriety and 
dignity befitting his royal office. He devoted himself seri- 
ously and wisely to its labors, and soon showed what a 
strong and high-minded nature he really possessed. 

Henry began his reign by several acts of magnanimity. 
He released vounsr Mortimer from the constraint 

Magna- - "^ 

nimity of uudcr whicli the last king had placed him, re- 
enry V. gj-Qj-g^i ^j-^g lately rcbellious family of Percy to their 
titles and property, and treated the young Scottish king, his 
prisoner, with marked kindness and respect. On the other 
hand, Henry followed his father's example in persecuting 
the Lollards. He was a devout and earnest son of the 
Church, and undoubtedly believed it right to put down 



THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 1 59 

heresy. Besides, the Lollards, whom oppression did not 
crush or dishearten, were accused of being disloyal to the 
crown. Their leader was Sir John Oldcastle, better known 
under his title of Lord Cobham. This able and gir joim 
sincere man was accused, with his followers, of oi^castie. 
conspiring against the king. Henry took prompt measures 
to suppress the Lollards. Many of them were seized, 
tried, and burned. After a time, Cobham himself was 
taken and shared the same fate. 

The most brilliant event of Henry the Fifth's career 
was his successful renewal of the war with France. He 
v/as induced to put forth a claim to the French crown, and 
to maintain it by force of arms, alike by his own towering 
ambition, and by the persuasion of the leading spirits of 
the church. His claim to the French crown was utterly 
absurd. It was not even as strong as that of state of 
Edward the Third had been. It was put forward t^echurch. 
merely as an excuse for war. In this he was encouraged 
by the bishops and abbots, ii^ order to divert the attention 
of the people from affairs at home. The wealth and lux- 
ury of the church had given rise to widespread discon- 
tent ; a great French war would perhaps lead the people 
to forget this grievance. Henry listened with eager ear to 
the advice of his spiritual counsellors. It happened, 
moreover, that France at this moment was plunged in dis- 
cord and civil war. The country was distracted by a 
fierce rivalry between two royal princes, the Dukes of 
Orleans and Burgundy. It was a most favorable time, 
therefore, for the English to once more invade the neigh- 
boring kingdom. 

Henry crossed the channel at the head of his army and 
laid siege to Harfleur, which yielded to him in about a 



l60 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

month. Thence he set forth across Normandy, with the in- 
tention of reaching Calais. But on crossins; the 

Henry _ ° '=' 

invades rivcr Sommc, he found himself confronted by a 
large French army, at least six times as numer- 
ous as his own. The young king now showed splendid cou- 
rage and brilliant military genius. The French had taken 
up their position in an open space between two thick copses 
of shrubbery. The ground on which they stood was slip- 
pery from recent rains. They wore heavy armor, and could 
with difficulty move over the muddy space. Henry rested 
his hopes on his cool-headed and lightly-attired archers. 
A palisade, erected in front of the English force, protected 
them from the French cavalry. As the latter advanced, 
Thebattieof ^^^^y ^^'^I'S rcccivcd by a storm of arrows. Then 
Agincourt. j_|-,g English rushcd forth, and plied their battle- 
axes with deadly effect among the confused ranks of 
the foe. The conflict was brief, sharp, and deadly. The 
French fell in hundreds ; hundreds more were taken pris- 
oners. Among the latter was the proud Duke of Orleans. 
As last, the French army which had marched forth so gaily 
and gallantly in the morning against the invader, was 
completely routed, and scattered in confusion in every 
direction. Thus was fought and won the memorable battle 
of Agincourt (1415). 

Henry returned in great triumph and glory to England. 
But the battle of Agincourt had not accomplished the ob- 
ject at which he aimed — the conquest of France. Two 
years later he again landed in Normandy, besieged and 
took Rouen, and forced the French to make a 

Rivalries of • 1 • 1 

the French humiliating peace. Once more the rivalries be- 
princes. ^^vecn the French princes had broken out, with re- 
doubled ferocity. The king of France was insane ; his son, 



THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. l6l 

the Dauphin, was cruel and treacherous ; and the whole 
kingdom was rent by the quarrels of the rival aspirants for 
power. The Duke of Burgundy had been lured into the 
hands of his enemies and perfidiously murdered. His son, 
abetted by the queen, preferred to make peace on any terms 
with Henry, rather than join arms with his father's assas- 
sins. The treaty of Troves (1420) was therefore concluded. 
By one of the provisions of this treaty, Henry obtained 
in marriage Katherine, the French monarch's daughter, 
whom he soon after wedded at Troyes. He Treaty of 
was recognized as the regent and heir of France, ^royes. 
and, on the death of the reijrning; kine^, would become 
his successor. After spending two years in England, Hen- 
ry again returned to France ; for the party of Orleans and 
the Dauphin still stood out against the treaty of Troyes. 
But the victorious career of the young warrior-king was 
fast draw'ng to a dose. In the prime of early manhood, 
at the are of thntv-four, Henrv the Fifth was taken sud- 
denly ill and died (1422). He was carried to Death of 
England, and was entombed with statelv and ^enry v. 
solemn pomp in Westminster Abbey. Above his tomb, to 
this day, may be seen the helmet, shield, and saddle which 
Henry wore so valiantly on the field of Agincourt. It 
seemed, at his death, as if the conquest of France by the 
English was complete. But in a few years the great re- 
sults of his brilliant triumphs were destined to melt away. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

THE WARS OF THE ROSES. 

THE short reigns of Henry the P'ourth and Henry the 
Fifth were followed bv the lono; and tumultuous rei2:n 
of Henry the Sixth. For the period of thirty-nine years 
which it covered, England was plunged in almost 
^^^^ ' continual external and internal conflict. The two 
main events of this reign were the closing acts of the hun- 
dred years' war with France, and the mighty and long-con- 
tinued struggle of the great English princes and lords for 
supremacy, known as the "Wars of the Roses." On his 
accession to the throne, Henry the Sixth was a feeble 
babe of nine months old, the only child of Henry the 
Fifth. It was necessary, therefore, that the kingdom should 
be governed for many years by a regency. Two brothers 
of Henry the Fifth, Humphrey Duke of Gloucester and 
The king's John Duke of Bedford, at first divided the pow- 
uncies. gj-g q£ |-j-jg crown bctwcen them. Bedford was a 
very able general, and to him was confided the conduct of 
the war in France. Gloucester, who was ambitious, quar- 
relsome, and grasping, and whose only pleasant trait seems 
to have been a great fondness for books, was put in charge 
of the home affairs. 

But Bedford's military genius did not a%'ail to preserve 
to England her conquests in France. Soon after the ac- 

162 



THE WARS OF THE ROSES. 163 

cession of 3'oung Henry, the conflict broke out afresh. 
Bedford, with the bold and brave Earl Talbot as his sec- 
ond in command, fought a great battle with the Bedford in 
French at Verneuil, in which he fairly over- France, 
whelmed the enemy. His object now was to take Paris 
and cause Henry to be crowned there, according to the 
provisions of the Treaty of Troyes. But first it was neces- 
sary to get possession of the ancient walled city of Or- 
leans, which was strongly garrisoned by the French. The 
siege of Orleans is one of the most memorable in history. 
The English, flushed with victory, sat down be- The siege 
fore the fortress, confident that it would ere long °^ oneans. 
fall into their hands. They soon so closely invested it 
that supplies could not be conveyed within the walls, and 
the garrison and people were threatened with starvation. 
A French army which came to raise the siege was re- 
pulsed with heavy loss. It seemed inevitable that Orleans 
must soon surrender to the English. 

At this juncture a wonderful event took place. A young 
peasant girl from Champagne, Joan of Arc, who declared 
that saints and angels had commanded her, in 
visions, to go to the relief of Orleans, approached 
the city at the head of a troop of soldiers. She was attired 
in shining white armor, and rode a magnificent coal-black 
horse ; her face was lit up with a strange, inspired light ; and 
the news of her divine mission, which had preceded her, 
spread terror among the English besiegers, and made the 
beleaguered garrison take fresh heart. Her presence at 
the head of her devoted soldiers acted like a spell. In 
ten days she had raised the siege of Orleans, driven the 
English from their every stronghold, and compelled Bed- 
ford's retreat. Her next object was to have the young 



164 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

French king, Charles the Seventh, crowned at Rheims, 
the ancient city where his predecessors had been crowned. 
Joan at She led her forces thither, winning victory after 
Rheims. victory, and taking town after town from the 
English, and at last witnessed the coronation of Charles 
in Rheims cathedral. 

Joan of Arc now longed to return to her simple rural 
home. But the French king would not permit this. She 
remained in command of her troops ; but now she failed 
as often as she succeeded, and the faith both of her sol- 
diers and the people died out. Then the brave heroine 
was delivered over, first to the Duke of Burgundy, and 
then to the English. She was tried for witchcraft, and, to 
the indelible disgrace of the English of that time, was 
burned at the stake. The death of the Duke of Bedford, 
soon after that of Joan of Arc, was a fatal blow to the 
English arms in France. The rivalries of the French prin- 
ces died out, and they united in defence of the kingdom. 
Meanwhile, rivalries had arisen among the great English 
lords, so that the war was not carried on by the invaders 
with its former energy. The result was that, after a series 
of lano^uid hostilities, the EnMish lost one by 

Victories ^ ' ^ ■' 

by the one all the provinces which they had taken from 
French. fi-ance, the seaport town of Calais alone remain- 
ing in their possession. 

The same fierce discords which had long rent France 
broke out, soon after Bedford's death, in En-gland. Hum- 
phrey Duke of Gloucester was "protector" in the king's 
minoritv ; but he was bitterly opposed bv a party 

Gloucester ^ ' \' \ ^ / V,- 

and Beau- headed by the powerful Cardmal Beaufort, Bish- 
^°^^' op of Winchester. Beaufort was half-great-uncle 

of the king ; and his two brothers, the Earl of Somerset 




JOAN OF ARC IN BATTLE. -Page i 



64. 



THE WARS OF THE ROSES. 165 

and the Duke of F^xeter, supported him in his opposition 
to Gloucester. The main issue between the rival parties 
concerned the war with France. Beaufort wished to make 
peace, and finally succeeded in that end. It was he, too, 
who brought about the marriage of King Henry with Mar- 
garet of Anjou, who was destined to play a bold and stir- 
ring part in the events to come. To this marriage Glou- 
cester and his faction were bitterly hostile. It happened 
that Beaufort and Gloucester died within a very brief pe- 
riod of each other (1447). But they only left the held to 
other fierce contestants for power. 

A claimant to the throne appeared in the person of 
Richard Duke of York. He based his claim on his de- 
scent from Mortimer, w^ho had been the rightful Richard 
heir by inheritance of Richard the Second. o^York. 
York was also the heir of Edward the Third's fifth son, 
Edmund; so that in him was united the blood of two of 
Edward the Third's sons. The youth and weak character 
of Henry the Sixth, and the death of his two most power- 
ful relatives, the fact that the House of Lancaster held the 
throne by Parliamentary election and not by hereditary 
right, and the discontent of a large body of the nobles at 
Gloucester's policy, seemed to open the way for York's 
vigorous prosecution of his claim. He had two 

Rival par- 
very able and warlike friends in Neville Earl of ties in 

Salisbury, and his son, Neville Earl of Warwick, "° ^"^ 
the former of whom was York's brother-in-law. But on 
the other side was the resolute Margaret of Anjou, Hen- 
ry's queen ; and with her stood, in defence of the House of 
Lancaster, De la Pole Earl of Suffolk, and Beaufort Duke 
of Somerset. 

The appearance of York as claimant to the throne was 



1 66 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

the signal for the beginning of the long, dreary, and devas- 
outbreak tating conflict known as the Wars of the Roses, 
of the Wars Yhe emblem of the House of Lancaster was a 

of the 

Roses. red rose, and that of York, a white rose ; hence 

the name given to the civil war. The first event was the 
impeachment and execution of Suffolk, who had been 
Margaret of Anjou's fast friend, and was her chief adviser. 
Somerset took the helm, but only held it for a short time. 
York entered London at the head of a considerable force, 
compelled Henry to summon a Parliament, and this Parlia- 
ment threw Somerset into prison. But he was soon re- 
leased and restored to power. Not long after, a son, 
Edward, was born to King Henry, and this event for a 
while strengthened the power of the Lancastrians. But 
York's Henry fell ill, and became for a while insane, 
victories. York took advantage of this circumstance to 
again cause Somerset's imprisonment ; and Parliament 
made York himself protector of the kingdom. 

The restoration of the king's reason once more turned 
the tables in his favor. Somerset replaced York as pro- 
tector, and York's friends were compelled to retire. And 
now civil war broke out in earnest. York summoned his 
adherents to arms, and, after being joined by the Nevilles, 
marched on London with a considerable force; He was 
met by the king's troops at St. Albans, where the 

The battle ■' & r 

ofst. Ai- first battle of the war was fought (1455). It re- 
sulted in a complete victory for York. Somerset 
was killed on the field, and Henry was led captive to Lon- 
don. The great conflict thus begun raged for thirty years. 
It was essentially a war of the great nobles and their vas- 
sals. The general mass of the people took but little part in 
the struggle, but continued their avocations very much as if 



THE WARS OF THE ROSES. 16/ 

there was peace in the land. It was a war, too, of con- 
stantly varying fortunes. Now Henry was victorious, and 
reio^ned in his feeble way ; then he was a prisoner, 

^ ■' r > Varying for- 

and his rival York held the royal power. Some- tunes of the 
times the red rose, and sometimes the white, was 
victorious on the battle-field. It was a war of constant ups 
and downs for both factions. 

In all, twelve battles were fought during the Wars of the 
Roses. There was now and then an interval of armistice 
and seeming reconciliation; after each period of peace, 
however, the conflict broke out more fiercely. As it went 
on, the leaders changed. Many great lords were killed in 
the battles ; others, when taken prisoners, were beheaded 
by their enemies. Thus the Earl of Salisbury, York's 
chief adherent, was executed after the battle of Wakefield 
(1460). In this battle, too, York himself was slain while 
valiantly leading his men in the onset. But his place was 
at once filled by his son Edward, who now became Duke 
of York, and was destined to become king of England. 
So utterly incapable was King Henry, that his resolute 
queen, Margaret of Anjou, took the lead of the Margaret 
Lancastrian cause, and herself commanded his °^ Anjou. 
soldiers in the field. A new and powerful adherent of the 
House of Lancaster appeared in jasper Tudor, whose de- 
scendants afterwards came to the throne. 

Edward of York pursued his campaign with great vigor, 
ably seconded by the great Earl of Warwick. Within three 
months after his father's death (1461) he entered Edward 
London at the head of a victorious force, and was °JJJ'^'"^^j 
crowned king of England. The hapless Henry ^^"^s- 
was consigned to the Tower. But Margaret of Anjou 
and her followers, though defeated, were not crushed. Ed- 



l68 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

ward was still forced to fight for his newly-assumed crown. 
With Warwick at his side he inflicted an overwhelming 
defeat on Margaret at Towton, and for a long period after- 
ward maintained himself on the throne without serious 
conflict. Margaret, however, would not desist from her 
attempts to recover power. Several times she landed from 
France on the English coast, only to be driven back across 
the Channel. With Edward's accession the reign of Henry 
the Sixth virtually came to an end ; though, after an in- 
terval of nine years, he was restored to the throne, and 
occupied it for a few months, only to be again driven from 
it by his rival. 

The chief domestic event of Henry's reign was a 
formidable rising of the people, under a bold Irishman 
Jack Cade's n-'imed Jack Cade (1450)- The revolt of Wat 
rebellion. Tvlcr, in Richard the Second's reign, was in- 
spired by the craving of the peasantry to become free from 
their bondage to the nobles and to the great estates. It 
was a rising against the oppression of the feudal system. 
Cade's rebellion, on the other hand, was political in its 
objects. Cade and his followers demanded that the people 
should be allowed to vote freely for members of Parlia- 
ment. The right of suffrage had become much restricted. 
The lower classes were compelled by the great lords to 
vote as those lords pleased. Cade appeared at the head 
of a vast multitude, and was victorious over the king's 
troops at Sevenoaks. He marched to London and en- 
tered it. His adherents seized Lord Say and executed 
him. Then they began to pillage the houses. This 
aroused the citizens, who had at first abetted the insurgents. 
Cade's followers were finally dispersed, and Cade himself 
was taken and put to death. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE HOUSE OF YORK. 

EDWARD the Fourth, the first king of the family of 
York, was noted for his personal beauty, his cou- 
rage in battle, his fondness for luxury, his immorality, 
his polished manners, and his many acts of heartless 
cruelty. Towards his enemies he was relent- character of 
less, and to his friends not seldom treacherous, ^^^ard iv. 
The first few years of his reign were fairly peaceful and 
prosperous, and he was liked, though never warmly loved, 
by his subjects. But after he had exercised almost un- 
disturbed authority for nine years, he took a step which 
for a while lost him his throne, and nearly excluded him 
from it altogether. The Earl of Warwick, his cousin, had 
always been his closest friend and his strongest supporter. 
To Warwick, indeed, Edward owed his conquest and pos- 
session of the crown. Against Warwick's strenuous pro- 
test, Edward married Elizabeth Woodville, a lady of infe- 
rior rank. Warwick had already displeased the Edward 
kino; bv brinmno: about a marriag^e between his ^i^^rreis 

» -- o o o with War- 

own daughter and the Duke of Clarence, Ed- wick. 

ward's brother. These events caused a bitter feud be- 
tween the king and the earl. Warwick suddenly deserted 
Edward, and joined the standard of Margaret of Anjou 
and the House of Lancaster. 

169 



I/O YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

Margaret of Anjou had a young son named Edward ; 
and to him Warwick gave his second daughter, Anne, in 
marriage. Joining Margaret in France, the great Earl 
raised an army and soon landed again on English shores 
(1470). As Warwick advanced, his forces were continu- 
ally swelled by multitudes who flocked to his banners. So 
formidable did he become that King Edward fled in dis- 
may across sea to Holland; while his queen, Elizabeth, 
sou2;ht sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. Hen- 

Warwick & ^ J 

restores ry the Sixth was brought out of the Tower, and 
Warwick set him upon his throne once more. 
But the tide of fortune soon turned again in favor of the 
House of York. The Duke of Clarence deserted War- 
wick, his father-in-law, and rejoined his brother Edward, 
who suddenly landed with an army on the east coast and 
boldly advanced on London. Warwick marched out to 

meet him, and the hostile forces came into col- 
Edward 

again victo- lisiou at Bamct. Edward was completely victo- 
"°^^' rious. Both Warwick and his brother Montague 

were killed in the battle ; and his shattered army was 
forced into hurried retreat. By Warwick's death England 
lost her most valiant warrior, and the nobility its most 
brilliant ornament. So powerful was he in seating and 
unseating kings that he is known as the "king-maker." 

The last battle between the rival forces of York and 

Lancaster took place at Tewkesbury (147 1). Margaret, 

who had come over with a fresh armv, foug^ht 

The battle . ^ ' o 

of Tewkes- dcsperatcly for her sinking cause. But her hero- 
'^'^^' ism was in vain. Her forces were decisively de- 

feated ; her young st)n, Edward, was cruelly murdered ; 
and she herself, and her feeble consort, Henry, were taken 
captive in the conqueror's train to London. Henry soon 



I 



THE HOUSE OF YORK. I/I 

after died, it is supposed by foul play, in the Tower. The 
last, he was also the weakest of the kings of the Lancas- 
trian line. He was very devout, and it was often said of 
him that he. ought to have been a monk instead character 
of a king. He was gentle, amiable, and sweet- "^^^"'■y^^- 
tempered, with simple and retiring tastes, and a great dis- 
like of war and government. Had it not been for his 
brave wife, Margaret of Anjou, he would have lost his 
crown much sooner than he did. After being kept captive 
for five years, Margaret of Anjou was ransomed by her 
relative, the king of France, to which country she retired, 
and in which she dwelt during the few remaining years of 
her life. 

The House of York now seemed firmly established on 
the throne. Edward the Fourth's principal enemies had 
either been slain, or were in prison or in exile. For the 
remaining twelve years of his life, his tenure of the throne 
was uncontested. The civil war over. Edward turned his 
attention to a war with France. He invaded -^^^r with 
that country, but soon made a treaty with Louis France, 
the Eleventh, by which Louis agreed to pay to England a 
yearly tribute of fifty thousand crowns. Soon after this 
the Duke of Clarence, Edward's next brother, was tried 
and condemned for high treasop, and died in the Tower. 
He is said to have been drowned in a butt of Malmsey 
wine, but this is not certain. A brief war with Scotland, 
towards the end of Edward's life, resulted in the taking of 
the border stronghold of Berwick from the Scots by the 
king's surviving brother, Richard, Duke of Glou- Death of 
cester. Edward died (1483) after a reign of ^^^■^'•** ^^• 
twenty-two years, leaving two young sons, of whom Ed- 
ward, the elder, succeeded him at the age of thirteen. 



172 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

This boy king, Edward the Fifth, can scarcely be said to 
have reigned at all. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, soon 
seized upon the royal power. He succeeded in taking 
young Edward and his brother from their mother and her 
relatives, in whose charge they had been left at their 
father's death. Richard was cruel, crafty, ambitious, and 
able. Aided by a group of powerful nobles, he 
■ was proclaimed protector of the kingdom. His 
first use of the authority thus placed in his hands was to 
imprison the two little princes in the Tower. Then he 
caused all the most powerful friends of the young king to 
be seized and executed. Lord Hastings, Earl Rivers, 
(the queen's brother). Lord Grey, in turn suffered death. 
Richard boldly asserted his own claim to the throne. He 
declared that Edward the Fourth's marriage to Elizabeth 
Woodville had not been a valid one ; and that therefore 
he, Gloucester, was the real heir. He was now too power- 
ful to be resisted. A deputation of lords and commoners 
offered him the crown, and Gloucester ascended the throne 
as Richard the Third. 

The reign of this vigorous, cruel, and tyrannical prince, 
whose body was as misshapen as his mind was malignant, 
was brief and stirring. He sought to strengthen his hold 
Richard's ^u the throuc by marrying Anne, the daughter 
marriage, ^f Warwick the " King-maker," and widow of 
the ill-fated young Edward, son of Henry the Sixth. 
Then, in order to rid himself of possible rivals, he caused 
the little princes, whom he had already branded as bas- 
tards, to be put to death in the Tower. There were, never- 
theless, many good features in the rule of the hunchback 
king. He promised, of his own accord, to restore the 
liberties which his subjects had enjoyed before the civil 



THE HOUSE OF YORK. 1/3 

wars. He was a liberal patron of literature and the arts. 
He made wise regulations for trade and com- 

^ _ Good acta 

merce. He enjoined upon his officers to see that of Rich- 
good order and justice should be established 
throughout the realm. He gave freedom to the few serfs 
who still remained bound to the great estates. He thus 
sought to win back the affections of the people, which he 
had forfeited by his cruel crimes. 

But these attempts to make himself popular failed. 
Richard w^as distrusted and hated by the people. Ere long 
a large part of the nobility were also arrayed against him. 
And now a fresh claimant to the throne appeared in the 
person of Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who Henry 
declared himself the heir of the House of Lan- ^udor. 
caster. Katherine of France, the queen of Henry the 
Fifth, had, after his death, married Owen Tudor, a Welsh 
gentleman, who was not even of noble blood. The eldest 
son of this marriage, Edmund Tvdor, wedded Margaret, 
great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt through Beaufort, 
Earl of Somerset, the eldest son of John of Gaunt by his 
second marriage. By this marriage of Edmund Tudor 
with Margaret of Beaufort, the claim to represent the 
House of Lancaster came into the Tudor family. Hen- 
ry Tudor, who now resolved to contest the throne with 
Richard, was Edmund Tudor's eldest son. There still re- 
mained, too, an heir of the House of York, who had a 
better title to the throne than Richard. This was Eliza- 
beth, eldest daughter of Edward the Fourth. 

Richard, finding himself detested, and his tenure of the 
crown in danger, conceived the project of marrying his 
niece Elizabeth, and so getting rid of at least one claimant. 
He applied to the Pope to divorce him from his wife, 



1/4 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

Anne of Warwick, and grant him a dispensation to re- 
place her by Elizabeth. But meanwhile the 

Richard ^ -^ • r -^ i i 

seeks a leaders of the once rival factions of York and 
Lancaster, now united in their common hos- 
tility to Richard, came together and agreed to combine 
the claims of the two royal houses, and thus to end 
forever the civil discord to which they had given rise. 
Before Richard could accomplish his purpose of marry- 
The white i"g l^^s niccc, lie learned that young Elizabeth 
and red }-,j^(^ bccomc the wifc of Hcury of Richmond. 

roses •' 

blended. Thus the whitc and the red roses, blended at 
last, formed a common cause against the usurping tyrant; 
and thus the foundation was laid of a new and powerful 
line of English kings and queens. 

No sooner had Henry raised the standard of revolt, 
than it was joined by many of the great nobles and by 
multitudes of the common people. The Duke of Buck- 
ingham, hitherto Richard's most steadfast friend, deserted 
him. but was taken and promptly put to death by the 
king's order. The friends of the family of Edward the 
Fourth and of Elizabeth his queen rallied to Henry's 
cause. His first attempt, indeed, was a failure : but, undis- 
Battie of mayed, he landed in Wales, the country of his 
Bosworth; fathers, and, with a large and ever-increasino^ fol- 

death of ' ' ^ ^ o ^ 

Richard, lowing, marchcd eastward. With all his wick- 
ednesses Richard the Third was as brave as a lion. He 
promptly sprang to the defence of his crown. Gather- 
ing all the forces he could raise, he marched rapidly 
to meet his enemy. They came into collision at Bos- 
worth, not far from Leicester. Richard was overwhelm- 
ingly defeated, and while fighting desperately was killed 
in the midst of the battle. His roval crown was found 



1 



THE HOUSE OF YORK. 1/5 

hanging on a bush, and there, on the battle-field, it was 
put on Henry's head. Henry soon after entered London, 
and was proclaimed king, with the title of Henry the 
Seventh. Thus came to an end the long conflict of the 
"Wars of the Roses" (1485). 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 

THE most important result of the Wars of the Roses 
was to lessen the power of the great English lords, 
so that they were never so strong after these wars as they 
Decline of had bccn before. In former times, as we have 
the power geen, the nobles had often, when combined, been 

of the ' ' ' 

lords. more powerful than the kings themselves. In- 

deed they had sometimes set up and pulled down kings at 
will. But the fierce rivalries of the struggle of the Roses, 
the executions of the defeated leaders after the battles, the 
exile of many of the lords, had rapidly reduced their num- 
bers and influence. And as the power of the nobles de- 
creased, that of the crown became greater; so that during 
the century following the battle of Bosworth, the kings and 
queens held supreme authority in the realm, and were able 
to rule with strong hands the nobles as well as the common 
people. 

With the waning of the power of the great lords came the 

decline also of that feudal system which had made them so 

strono: in the by-o;one time. The ties of the vassal 

Decay of ^ ^ -^ ^ 

the feudal to liis fcudal chicf wcrc loosened, and the laboring 
sys em. classcs becamc more free, more prosperous, and 
more comfortable. Indeed, so lavish did the lower orders 
become in the expenditure of their money, that in the 

176 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 17/ 

time of Edward the Fourth laws were passed forbidding 
them to wear clothes which Parliament thought too fine 
for their condition. Servants and workingmen were not 
allowed to wear cloth which cost more than two shillings 
a yard, and they were prohibited from display- social con- 
ino^ silv^er ornaments on their persons. Mean- ^}^^°^ °^ 

^ ^ the Eng- 

while the lords, in consequence of the War of lish. 
the Roses, had become poor, and for the most part could 
not afford to live in the luxury and magnificence to which 
they had once been wont. 

A great lord's household, in the time of the York kings, 
would seem very rude and comfortless to those who live in 
the nineteenth century. The lord and his lady a lord's 
subsisted for the most part on coarse fare, such household, 
as beer, boiled beef, and salt fish, sometimes varied by 
fowl or pork. As for the servants, they were forced to 
content themselves with salt meat and a few vegetables 
almost daily throughout the year. The provision for fires 
was very meagre in the castles and manor-houses, and the 
servants had to submit to being cold through the winter 
days. Those great houses, too, must have been very 
dirty, as there was no such custom as "house-cleaning," 
and the linen and other clothing were only washed at very 
long intervals. 
^ In the very midst of the conflict of the Roses, an event 
quietly took place in England which was destined to bring 
about greater changes among the people than did many 
kings and many wars. This was the introduction 

^ Introduc- 

mto England of the art of printing, by the good tion of 
merchant and scholar, William Caxton. Caxton p*''"^^"^^- 
had lived for a long time in Flanders, where printing had 
become known. Havin^r translated a French book on the 



178 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

siege of Troy, he thought he would try the new art, so that 
many Enghsh people might read the book (147 1). A few 
years afterward he returned home, and set up a small print- 
ing shop in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey (1476). 
caxton's Happily he received the protection of the king, 
books. queen, and court, and plied his new vocation in 
peace. He printed a book written by Lord Rivers, the 
queen's brother, and afterwards issued Chaucer's " Can- 
terbury Tales," "^sop's Fables," "Reynard the Fox," 
and other works. 

It may be judged what an influence printing had upon 
the intelligence of the people, when it is remembered that, 
before it was introduced, all the books had to be copied by 
hand, or at least, printed from rude blocks of wood. 
Results of These books were of course very expensive, and 
printing. eveu the richest men could only afford to pos- 
sess a few of them. But printing cheapened the produc- 
tion of books, so that very many more people could afford 
to buy them than before. Thus printing very soon re- 
sulted in spreading information among the people, and in 
elevating and broadening the general standard of intelli- 
gence. It cannot be doubted that the introduction of 
printing had much to do with the great changes in reli- 
gious thought which very soon followed it. 

The Wars of the Roses left the crown stronger than 
the nobles, but did not lessen the power of Parliament. 
The representatives of the people still voted the 
of Pariia- taxcs which were levied, and the king could not 
™^^*' even now raise money from his people without 

their consent. The people had taken more and more inter- 
est in the election of members, and had come to learn bet- 
ter how to use the rights which in the course of centuries 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 1 79 

had been won by their champions. Parliament met more 
often than in former times, and this increased its powers 
and strengthened its position as one of the estates of the 
reahn. The general result, in short, of the struggles of 
three centuries had been to secure a larger degree of lib- 
erty to the English people. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 

THE rule of the House of Tudor forms a very inter- 
esting period in English history. The kings and 
queens of that family had marked traits and strong wills, 
and wielded the royal power with great vigor. Henry the 
Seventh, the first king of the Tudor line, united 
Henry VII. |^^^ j^^^ ^^^^^^ descent and his marriage the rival 
claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster to the throne. 
But while his accession (1485) put an end to the Wars 
of the Roses, it did not suppress all civil discord. His 
reign of twenty-four years was disturbed by many internal 
and external troubles. At first, Henry's subjects admired 
him for his valor in battle ; but it soon turned out that he 
was a harsh, stern, cold man, excessively fond of money, 
and unscrupulous in his ways of getting it. 

Henry's difficulties began at the very outset of his reign. 
A rising of Yorkist partisans took place in northern Eng- 
land before he had been on the throne a vear. 

Pretenders •' 

to the Scarcely had this been suppressed, when a pre- 

tender to the throne, in the person of one Lam- 
bert Simnel, who claimed to be a nephew of Edward the 
Fourtii, appeared in Ireland, and was actually crowned 
king at Dublin. He invaded England ; but was speedily 
defeated and taken prisoner, and finally became a servant 

180 



THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 151 

in the king's kitchen. Later in Henry's reign another pre- 
tender, Perkin Warbeck, gave the king more trouble than 
Simnel had done. Warbeck declared that he perkin 
was a son of Edward the Fourth, and one of the warbeck. 
princes who were supposed to have been put to death in 
the Tower. He was encouraged to assert his claim by 
the king of France, who was just then on bad terms 
with Henry, and by the king of Scotland, who gave War- 
beck a near relative of his own. Lady Gordon, for a wife. 
Warbeck succeeded in inducing many Englishmen to be- 
lieve his story. His struggle to obtain the throne lasted 
for five years. But at last he was captured near Newark, 
and two years later was executed. 

These were not the only plots against Henry's throne ; 
but he dealt with each revolt, as it arose, with a strong 
hand, and finally succeeded in crushing out all formidable 
opposition to his rule. Henry showed in many of his acts 
statesmanship and wisdom. He devoted himself 

'■ Henry's 

vigorously to subjecting the nobility, already states- 
weakened by the civil wars, to the royal power. 
He created a court to try nobles who attempted to combine 
for mutual defence, or to keep up a body of armed retain- 
ers. This court is famous in history as the " Star Cham- 
ber," because it met in a room the ceiling of which was stud, 
ded with stars. It met in secret, and soon took ^^e star 
to itself the power of trying not only nobles, but chamber, 
any one who was obnoxious to the king or the court. It 
thus became an instrument of tyranny, and often of 
cruelty. But it at least served the purpose of effectually 
curbing the power of the nobles ; and this, in the end, was 
a great gain to the English people. 

Henry was very shrewd in his dealings with foreign 



1 82 YOUNG PKOPI.e's ENGLAND. 

nations. He greatly preferred peace to war, and he con- 
stantly labored to keep on good terms with his brother sov- 
ereigns. He made friendly treaties with France, Scotland, 
and Spain ; and he cemented these alliances by giving his 
eldest son Arthur in marriat^e to Katherine, the 

Alliances ° 

with foreign daughter of the Spanish king, and his daughter 
powers. Margaret in marriage to James the Fourth, king 
of Scotland. From this latter marriage sprang the line of 
the Stuarts, who afterwards reigned in England. Thus 
Henry avoided war with all foreign powers during his 
reign. He also brought Ireland into more complete sub- 
jection to English rule, by extending English laws to the 
sister island, and forbidding the Irish parliament to sit and 
make laws without the royal sanction. While Henry gave 
order to his realm, and saw that justice was done, and that 
the laws were everywhere obeyed, his love of money led 
him to commit many harsh acts. To be sure he did not 
violate the right of Parliament to vote the taxes; but he 
very seldom called Parliament together, and he resorted 
to various unjust ways of extorting money, espe- 
extortions cially froui his rich subjects. He used to openly 
of money. ^^^ ^^^j^ ^^^^ £^^ large sums ; and when money 

had once been promised to him, he took it by force. Old 
laws imposing fines were also revived, and the king made 
use of every excuse to get money by granting special 
privileges. As Henry was very parsimonious, and spent 
little for show or luxury, he amassed a large fortune by 
these means. He was, indeed, prudent in all things, and, 
with all his miserly ways, governed his people on the whole 
with a view to their benefit. 

During his reign commerce flourished, and the English 
advanced rapidly in prosperity and riches. It was an era, 



THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 1 83 

also, of distant discovery. The successful voyages of Co- 
lumbus and of Vasco da Gama stimulated the An era of 
ambition of adventurous Englishmen. John and discovery. 
Sebastian Cabot, encouraged by the king, made the dis- 
covery of Newfoundland (1497), and afterwards of other 
places on the American coast ; and thus prepared the way 
for the later English settlements, and the founding of a 
great American nation. Sebastian Cabot published the 
first map of the world representing the two hemispheres, 
and maps and charts were now used for the first time in 
England. Shillings were first coined in the reign of the 
seventh Henry; and the chapel after his name Death of 
in Westminster Abbey, one of the most beautiful ^enry vii. 
pieces of architecture in the world, was erected. Henry 
the Seventh died (1509) at the age of fifty-tw^o, respected, 
though not at all beloved, by his subjects. 

Arthur, the eldest son of Henry the Seventh, had died 
during the lifetime of his father ; the crown therefore 
devolved upon the second son, who assumed it with the 
title of Henry the Eighth, and became one of the most 
powerful and most famous kings in English his- character 
tory. At the time of his accession he was only andappear- 

-' •> ance of 

eighteen years of age; but he was tall, hand- Henry viii. 
some, manly in features, stately in bearing, and conducted 
himself with true princely dignity. From the first his 
subjects admired and were proud of him ; and although 
during his long reign he committed many despotic acts, 
and subjected all men and all things to his imperious will, 
he never entirely lost the affection of his people. At the 
very beginning of his reign he showed that he meant to 
govern his kingdom with a strong hand. One of his first 
acts w^as to marry his brother Arthur's widow, Katherine 



184 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

of Arragon. The laws of the church forbade this mar- 
Marriage riage; but Henry persuaded the Pope to suspend, 
of Henry, qj- "dispense" with this law. One reason why 
he wished to have Katharine for his wife was, that he 
was ambitious of military glory, and desired to obtain the 
alliance of her father, who was then king of Spain. 

Henry remembered the victories which had once 
crowned the arms of England, and resolved to invade 
France, He accordingly crossed the Channel with an army, 
and captured the town of Tournay. But now he heard that 
a Scottish army, taking advantage of his absence, had en- 
tered English territory with their king at their head This 
force was met, at a place called Flodden, near the border, 
Defeat of ^^Y ^^^^ EugHsh uudcr the Earl of Surrey The 
the Scots. J-e>^^l^- of the conflict was that the Scots were ut- 
terly defeated and driven back, and their king, James the 
Fourth, was killed on the field. Henry did not, however, 
think it wise to continue his campaign in France, and so 
made peace with the French king. A few years afterward 
Henry paid a visit to France and met the young king, 
Francis the First, at a splendid festival called "The Field 
of the Cloth of Gold ; " where brilliant tournaments were 
fought, and right royal feasts were held, in honor of the 
two sovereigns. 

Before Henry had been long on the throne he took into 
his counsels a man who was destined to play a great part 
Thomas '^^^ ^hc affairs of England. This was Thomas 
woisey. Wolsey, a priest, who soon rose to the dignities 
of Archbishop of York and Chancellor of the kingdom. 
Wolsey was the child of obscure parents. It was even said 
that he was the son of a butcher. But he had graduated 
at Oxford at the earlv ajje of fifteen, and had been noted 



THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 1 85 

there for his fine scholarship and brilliant talents. Then 
he had become a chaplain to Henry the Seventh, and had 
served him so well in many ways that he became one of 
the king's chief favorites and advisers. He Rise of 
showed, even in early youth, great energy, am- woisey. 
bition, and tact. Henry the Eighth perceived that such a 
man would be of invaluable use to him ; and, being him- 
self fond of pleasure, was glad to find an able adviser who 
would relieve him of many of the cares of state. Wolsey, 
on his side, perceived that by humoring the king, and by 
faithfully carrying out his wishes, he himself would gain 
the power and wealth which he craved. 

Wolsey's fame as a statesman rests mainly on two 
grounds. His policy raised England's authority among 
other nations to a higher point than it had ever before 
reached; and his zeal in serving the king's cause in the 
contests which arose with the monasteries and with the 
Pope, prepared the way for the religious reformation of 
the English people. Let us first see what he did in his 
dealings with foreign nations. There were at The rival 
this time two great rival kings in Europe. One ^^'^ss. 
was the vouns; and chivalrous Francis the First, kino; of 
France ; and the other, Charles, king of Spain, who soon 
became also emperor of Germany, with the title of Charles 
the Fifth. Both Francis and Charles were ambitious and 
warlike, and for a long period they fought each other 
with varying fortunes. Francis wished to conquer certain 
parts of Italy and add them to his dominions, and this 
was the original cause of the wars. 

England was now so strong that both the combatants 
desired her alliance and aid. Wolsey shrewdly took ad- 
vantage of this fact to lean first to one side and then to 



1 86 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

the other, never, however, completely involving England 
with either. At one time Eno^land was friendly 

Wolsey's -it? i ^ 

foreign with Spaui, at another with France ; but always 
policy. ^^\'^\^ an eye to the increase of her own power. 
At last Francis was defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia, 
in Italy (1525). Wolsey demanded of Charles that another 
king should be put on the French throne, who should 
be really subject to England. But the Emperor feared lest 
this should make England too strong ; and, after holding 
Francis for a while in captivity, made a treaty with him 
and released him. Eno-land now bei^an to draw 

England 

favors the away froui Charles and to favor the French side. 
The refusal of Charles to consent to Wolsey's 
])roposal was not the only reason for this. Henry the 
Eighth had become tired of his queen, Katherine of Arra- 
gon. The sons she had borne him had died, and their 
only surviving child was a daughter. Henry was anxious 
to have a male heir to his throne. He resolved to put 
away Katherine and take another wife ; and it was the 
consequences of this resolve which gave rise to the move- 
ment of religious reformation in England. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

THE RISE OF PROTESTANTISM. 

IN seeking for a divorce from his wife, Henry the Eighth 
relied upon the aid of Wolsey, and this aid was at first 
zealously given. Wolsey was now not only chancellor, but 
a cardinal of the church, and the Pope's legate, Henry's 
or representative, in England. The law forbade divorce, 
any Englishman to hold this latter office ; but Wolsey ex- 
ercised it in spite of the law, and as legate he had great 
power over the church. Wolsey's wealth, moreover, and 
the pomp and splendor in which he lived, added to his in- 
fluence. He had built as his residences Hamp- 
ton Court and Whitehall, which were sumptuous magnm- 
palaces; his retinue was only less numerous than 
that of the king ; and he lavished enormous sums on the 
feasts with which he regaled the nobility and the envoys 
of foreign powers. No subject in England had ever dis- 
played more magnificence and state. 

Wolsey put forth all his power and ability to bring about 
the divorce of the king from Katherine. He hoped that 
when this had been effected, Henry would marry a French 
princess. He appealed to the Pope to revoke the dispen- 
sation which had allowed Henry to marry his brother's 
widow. But just now the Spaniards were victorious. 
Charles the Fifth had even taken the Pope prisoner, and 

107 



1 88 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

had held him captive for some lime. So the Pope dared 
not offend Charles by annulling the marriage of Charles's 
aunt, the English queen. But he sent a legate to England, 
The Pope Cardinal Campeggio, wlio, wiih Wolsey, tried to 
interferes, persuade Katheriiie to assent to the divorce. 
This she proudly refused to do. She was resolved to 
stand upon her rights, and demanded that the Pope him- 
self should try the matter. 

The failure of Wolsey to procure the divorce greatly an- 
gered the imperious Henry ; and now another event hap- 
pened which hastened the great cardinal's downfall. The 
Henry falls ^^i"g ^^^^ ^^"^ ^^jvc with a young lady of the court, 
in love with ^/\nne Bolevn, and this made him more imi3atient 

Anne Bo- -^ ' ^ 

ieyn. than ever to get rid of Katherine. Wolsey, who 

desired him to marry a French princess, became hostile to 
the king's union with Anne Boleyn, and ceased trying to 
get the divorce from Katherine. This aroused the hatred 
of Anne Boleyn and all her friends, and Henry was per- 
suaded to depose and disgrace the chancellor. Wolsey 
was charged with having illegally exercised the office of 
Pope's legate. He appealed to the king, and gave up to 
him his splendid palaces and long-garnered wealth. But 
Henry turned a deaf ear to his once powerful counsellor. 
Fall of Wolsey was arrested at York, whither he had retired 
Wolsey. overwhelmed with grief, and was being carried to 
London to be tried, when he" suddenly died at Leicester. 
Just before he breathed his last he exclaimed, " Had I as 
zealously served my God as I have served the king, he 
would not have deserted me in my gray hairs" (1530). 

Henry the Eighth now openely defied the Pope, and, in 
spite of the Pope's refusal to grant him a divorce from 
Katherine, he married Anne Boleyn. He compelled a 




THE TRIAL OF C^UEEX KATHERIXE. — Page ibb. 



THE RISE OF PROTESTANTISM. 1 89 

number of the English bishops to pronounce this second 
marriage vahd ; and, soon after, I^rUament declared that 
the Pope had no longer any power in England, ^he king 
but that the king was the sole head of the Eng- f^f J^^^ ^^ 
lish church. Thus began the revolt of the Eng- the church, 
lish from the Roman church, which resulted in the Refor- 
mation. But at first this revolt was confined to throwing 
off the Papal authority. It did not reject the doctrines of 
the Roman Catholic church. For a long time Henry ad- 
hered to the faith, and severely punished those who de- 
parted from it. But it so happened that Henry's resolve 
to marry a second time came at a period when the English 
people were becoming ripe for great religious changes ; 
and thus the king's wishes and those of his people com- 
bined to bring about a reformed church. 

For a long time the people had been disgusted with the 
indolence, greed, and corruption of many of the 

' o ' ^ ^ The people 

clergy, and especially of the monks who gathered and the 
in the monasteries. There was a general desire ^ ^^^^' 
that these abuses should be reformed, that the clergy and 
monks should lead more simple and holy lives, and that 
the riches Wiich they had amassed should be used for the 
spiritual and intellectual benefit of the community. The 
introduction of printing, as a result of which books became 
cheap and plenty, had enlarged the intelligence 

i- r ji & & Increase of 

of the people, so that they more clearly perceived popular in- 
the deceptions and pretensions practised by many 
of the monks and priests. Learned men, like Erasmus, 
vSir Thomas More, and Colet, wrote books which exposed 
the abuses which flourished within the church. Even 
VVolsey had effected some reforms, by which the clergy 



190 , YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

were restricted to their pious duties ; and Wolsey had also 
Christ aided the cause of learning by founding the col- 

church. iggg Qf Christ Church at Oxford, and a school 
at Ipswich. 

Not only were the people anxious that the clergy should 
become purer and better, but they, as well as their kings, 
had for many generations been restive under the powers 
claimed by the Popes. More than once, in this history, 
have we seen the English resisting the interference of the 
Popes in their affairs, and making laws to prevent them 
from doing so. When, therefore, Henry resisted the au- 
thority of the Pope altogether, and announced himself as 
the head of the church, he won the hearty support of the 
Parliament great mass of his subjects. Soon after his mar- 
annuis the j-iasfc to Aunc Bolcvu, laws were passed by Parlia- 

power of ^ ^ ' •* -^ 

the Pope in mcut which Completely did away with the Pope's 

England. ,.._,,,'' ^^. . , 

authority in England. His power to appoint the 
bishops and clergy of the English church was annulled ; 
il was enacted that no more money should be collected for 
him in England ; and the clergy were freed from their obli- 
gation to obey him. 

The Lollards, followers of John Wycliffe, w^ere still nu- 
merous in England. They had always been persecuted, 
ever since the time of Wycliffe himself ; but even oppres- 
sion had not entirelv crushed them out. They 

Doctrines ^ 

of the went fuither in their belief than those who mere- 

ly wished to reform the abuses of the clergy, and 
even than those who desired to free England from the 
Pope's authority ; for they rejected many of the doctrines 
themselves of the Roman Church. They urged that since 
reform had once been begun, it should extend to making 
religious faith more simple and more reasonable. This 



:"W!^ii 




ENTRANCE OF ANNE BOLEYN INTO LONDON. — Page 190. 



THE RISE OF PROTESTANTISM. IQI 

sect was greatly strengthened by the movement begun, just 
about the time of Henry's revolt from the Pope, by Martin 
Luther in Germany. Luther boldly attacked the Martin 
doctrines of the church. He and his followers Luther, 
"protested" against the injunction of the Diet of Speyer 
(1529) that mass should be said in every church; and so 
they came to be called " Protestants." Henry the Eighth 
did not at first go so far as to wish to change the doctrines 
of the church. Indeed he persecuted the followers of 
Wycliffe, and put some of them to death for heresy. 

The first step taken by the king and his advisers was to 
procure an act of Parliament which fixed the succession to 
the crown. Oueen Kalherine had borne to the 

^ The suc- 

king a daughter, Mary; and Queen Anne Boleyn cession to 

had also now borne another daughter, Elizabeth. 
Both of these princesses afterwards reigned, the latter glo- 
riously, as queens of England. Henry resolved to ex- 
clude Mary from the succession, and so he caused Parlia- 
ment, which was always very subservient to his will, to de- 
clare Elizabeth his lawful heiress. Wolsey had been suc- 
ceeded in the king's confidence by a harsh, stern, and 
energetic man, Thomas Cromwell ; and Crom- Thomas 
well soon learned how to serve the king as effec- cromweii. 
tually as Wolsey had done. He not only secured the act 
of succession in Elizabeth's favor, but also persuaded Par- 
liament to pass a law which made it high treason to deny 
that the king was the supreme head of the English church. 
This law was resisted by many of the clergy, and espe- 
cially by the monks who were gathered in the monasteries. 
Cromwell dealt with the rebellious monks with ^ 

Severity 

a severe and strong hand. He caused some of against the 
the most obdurate to be executed. Then he pro- 



192 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

cured an act which suppressed all monasteries, throughout 
England, whose incomes fell below two hundred pounds 
annually. The property of the monasteries thus sup- 
pressed was given over to the king, who thus became 
very rich. Two of the most noted and pious men in the 
kingdom, Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More, 

Deaths of ^7 ' , , , rr 1 i r ^ ■ 1 

More and suffcrcd death on the scaffold for denymg the 
Fisher. i^ii-ig's supremacy over the church. Sir Thomas 
More had at first favored reforms in the church, but had 
been startled by the progress of the Reformation, and gave 
up his life for his loyalty to the Pope. Both of these good 
men died a heroic death. At a later period (1539) all the 
monasteries in England were suppressed by act of Henry's 
always obedient Parliament, and their wealth. was added 
to the coffers of the king. He founded a few bishoprics 
and schools with a portion of this wealth ; but it was 
mostly spent in ministering to Henry's luxuries. Some of 
the abbots and monks were executed, and others were 
exiled ; all of them, for a time, disappeared from the pub- 
lic view. 

Besides the stern Cromwell, Henry had another adviser 

and servant who proved quite as devoted to his wishes. 

This was Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterburv ; 

Cranmer. ^ _ ^ 

a man whose acts form a conspicuous part of 
the movement of religious reformation. He, too, had 
aided Henry in procuring his divorce from Katherine ; 
and It was he who caused the English translation of the 
Bible, by Tyndale, to be scattered broadcast through the' 
land. For a long time Tyndale's translation had been 

forbidden by the king and the bishops. It had 

Tyndale's ' ° ^ 

translation bccu bumcd publicly in St. Paul's, where Prot- 

of the Bible. ^ , , ' n i r- 

estants themselves were compelled to set nre to 



THE RISE OF PROTESTANTISM. I93 

the pile of volumes. It had been denounced by friars 
from the altars, and bravely defended by Latimer, one of 
the noblest of the early Protestants, who was after- 
wards made Bishop of Worcester by Henry the Eighth, 
but later suffered for his faith at the stake. Tyndale, 
too, the translator of the Bible, suffered for his faith 
and deeds on the scaffold. 

But under the influence of Cranmer the king gradually 
came to approve, not only of reforms in the church and 
the suppression of the Pope's authority in Eng- TheBngush 
land, but also of chano-es of doctrine. An Eng- ^'^^^ ^^^^ 

' C" ® in the 

lish Bible was placed in every English church churches. 
(1539). The convocation of the clergy adopted ten arti- 
cles of religion, which nearly conformed to the teachings 
of Luther. Certain religious festivals were abolished, 
images were suppressed, and the shrines of saints done 
away with. Henry even declared that Thomas a Becket 
had been a traitor, and commanded that that saint's tomb 
at Canterbury should be demolished, and that his bones 
should be removed. The king at one time began to fear 
that he was goins: too far, and took some back- 

=' ^ ' _ Henry 

ward steps. He caused Parliament to adopt six takes back- 

.,,.., . , T-> ward steps. 

articles, directed agamst the more extreme Prot- 
estants, forbidding priests to marry, and re-establishing 
confession. Those who refused to submit to these articles 
were executed. But, in the end, Cranmer's influence pre- 
vailed, and the party which desired a reform of doctrine 
came into the ascendant. 

Cranmer was aided in his effort to reform the doctrines 
of the church, in the latter part of Henry's reign, by a 
statesman of great ability. This was the Earl of Hertford, 
who afterward became Duke of Somerset, and is famous in 



194 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

history as the "Protector Somerset." Between them these 

two had pretty much their own way with the king. Henry 

had caused his second wife, Anne Bolevn, to be 

The Protec- ' ^ ' 

torsomer- bchcadcd, profcssiug that he suspected her of 
unfaitlifuhiess. Cromwell had then arranged his 
marriage with Anne of Cleves, a German princess, who 
proved so distasteful to Henry that he soon got a divorce 
from her. Henry's fourth wife was Jane Seymour, who 
was a sister of the Earl of Hertford, and whose marriage 
enabled Hertford to rise to power. Jane Seymour died in 
giving birth to a son, who afterwards reigned as Edward 
the Sixth. So angry was Henry with Cromwell for bring- 
ing about his marriage with Anne of Cleves, that, on the 
Fall of charge that he had deceived him, he caused 
Cromwell. Cromwcll to bc put to death. So it was that 
Cromwell, great, powerful, and obedient as he had been, 
fell, as Wolsey had fallen before him. 



1 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET. 

THE reign of Henry the Eighth was for the most 
part taken up with rehgious struggles and changes. 
He w^as a very ambitious monarch ; yet his rule was 
marked by no long conflict, either civil or foreign. He 
had brief wars with Scotland and France, and 

Features of 

took Boulogne from the French; but he won the reign of 

1 . „,, ^ ^ ^. Henry VIi:. 

no glory as a warrior. 1 here was, too, at tunes, 
more or less internal discontent. Revolts took place, one 
led by the York party, who desired to dethrone Henry, and 
-others instigated by abbots and priests. But these risings 
were in every case suppressed with an iron hand. The 
birth of a son to Henry (1537) firmly fixed the Tudor 
dynasty on the throne, and for the last ten years of his 
life Henry was more powerful than any English king had 
ever been. He married as his fifth wife Katherine Howard, 
a niece of the Duke of Norfolk (1C40). But 

^ -'^ ^ Birth of an 

she suffered the fate of Anne Boleyn, and was heir to the 
executed, the year after her marriage, for incon- 
stancy. Henry the Eighth married for his sixth and last 
wife Katherine Parr, who survived him. Katherine Parr 
befriended the Protestants, and it was after her marriage 
with Henry that the Litany and English prayers were for 
the first time used in the churches. 

195 



196 ^ YOUNG PEOPLE-S ENGLAND. 

Henty the Eighth died (1547) after a reign of thirty- 
eight years. Cruel and despotic, he yet used his power to 
make England strong abroad, united and prosperous at 
Death of home. His share in bringing about the reforma- 
Henry VIII. j-jq^-, ^^,^g ^q doubt prompted by selfish motives ; 
still it was under him that Protestantism took such root 
in England that it could never afterwards be torn out. 
Henry completely ruled his Parliaments, which submis- 
sively passed the laws he dictated. In his dealings with 
the people he was often harsh and overbearing. But his 
robust and wilful character enabled him to retain the re- 
spect of his subjects throughout his reign. Henry lived 
in great splendor and luxury, and kept up the state which 
he thought befitting a powerful sovereign. 

Edward the Sixth, who succeeded to the throne, was a 

child of nine years. The kingdom was therefore governed 

for a while by a council of regency, composed of 

"^^^ ' sixteen noblemen, at the head of whom was the 
Earl of Hertford, or, as he had now become, the Duke of 
Somerset. Somerset was the brother of Queen Jane Sey- 
mour, and was therefore young Edward's uncle. He was 
Government ^ ^^^^^^ o^ such forcc and ability that he soon 
of Somerset. ^qq|, j-|-jg ^yholc power of the government into 
his own hands. He caused himself to be proclaimed 
" Protector of the realm," and the other members of the 
council became wholly subject to his will. Abetted by 
Cranmer, Somerset went very much further in making 
changes in the doctrines and practices of the church than 
Henry the Eighth had done. He was harsh and intolerant 
towards those who still clung to the old belief, of whom 
there was still a very great number, especially in the inte- 
rior of England. Those who would not accept the new 



THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET. IQ/ 

creed were persecuted, and even sometimes burned ; while 
Roman Catholic bishops, Hke Gardiner and Bonner, were 
thrown into prison for refusing to adopt the reformed re- 
ligion. 

The principal changes made by Somerset and Cranmer 
were that the English instead of the Latin language was 
used in church services : images, pictures, and 

' & ' r- ' Tjie church 

Other symbols were for the most part removed reforms of 
from the churches ; worship of the Virgin and and'cTan- 
of the saints was forbidden ; confession of sins °^®^- 
ceased to be obligatory, though the people might still con- 
fess if they wished ; the doctrine of transubstantiation 
w^as struck out of the creed ; and the priests were allowed 
to marry. Thus some of the most vital points in the Ro- 
man Catholic doctrines were altered. The English prayer- 
book was also adopted. In many parts of the country the 
people rebelled against its use, but it was welcomed by 
the population of the larger cities and towns. The rash- 
ness, severity, and even cruelty with which the cruelties 
Protector and Cranmer enforced these changes ^p^n^the 
provoked a revolt in western England, which catholics, 
threatened to grow into dangerous proportions. Thou- 
sands of Cornish and Devon men, led by priests, banded 
together to resist the decrees of Somerset. An army was 
sent to put them down, and several hotly contested bat- 
tles ensued. At last the insurgents were overcome, and 
their leaders were executed (1549). 

About the same time Somerset had to deal with another 
revolt which broke out in the eastern counties, ^ ,^ 

Revolt 

from an entirely different cause. The owners of a-aiust 

1 r -r-. t 1 1 1 • landlords. 

large estates in that part of England had got into 

the habit of enclosing the commons which, for a long pe- 



198 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

riod, had been freely used by the people for their general 
use and recreation. These open spaces were fenced in by 
the land-owners, and cultivated for their own profit; and 
thus many poor people lost their means of living. Other 
land-owners, by turning their ploughed lands into sheep 
pastures, had deprived many laborers of work. Great 
distress followed these acts in the eastern districts ; and 
the people finally rose in revolt. The insurgents took and 
Taki-gof held Norwich, the principal town of the eastern 
Norwich. shorcs. Somerset hired some German troops, 
and these, with his English soldiers, engaged in an obsti- 
nate conflict with the rebels. It was only after ten thou- 
sand rebels had been slain, and desolation had been 
spread over a wide tract of country, that the rebellion was 
subdued, and its leaders were seized and hanged. 

The harshness with which Somerset treated the Scots 

revived all the old animosities between that people and 

the English. Henry the Eighth had done his best to keep 

on ofood terms with the Scots, so as to prevent 

Relations ^ , , ^ 

With Scot- them from allying themselves with France. He 
had not wholly succeeded, for James the Fifth of 
Scotland had married a French princess, had formed an 
alliance with the French kins:, and had even invaded Eno^- 
land with a considerable army. Defeated on the banks of 
the Solway, King James had suddenly died of grief. Henry 
had wished that Mary, the daughter of James, afterwards 
famous as Mary Queen of Scots, should wed his own heir, 
young Edward ; but died before he could put this plan into 
execution. Somerset rashly reversed the policy of seeking 
Religious friendship with the Scots. The Reformation 
**!^*l^''^'°''^ had made headway in Scotland as well as in 

01 the ^ 

Scots. England. The Scottish lords and people were 



THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET. I99 

divided into bitter factions, tlie one Catholic and the other. 
Protestant ; and fierce dissensions soon arose between 
them. Cardinal Beaton, who was conducting the Scottish 
government, was killed by the Protestants in the Castle of 
St. Andrews, because he had ordered a Protestant minister 
to be burned. 

Somerset, while he did not aid the Scottish Protestants 
with soldiers, encouraged their warfare upon the Catholics. 
France, on the other hand, sent some troops to aid the 
Catholics, and these French troops succeeded in taking 
the Castle of St. Andrews from its Protestant captors. 
Then Somerset in turn invaded Scotland with 

Somerset 

his army, defeated the Scots near Edinburgh, invades 
and plundered and burned the villages round 
about, committing many acts of barbarous cruelty. But he 
returned to England without having achieved his main end, 
which was to force Mary to wed young King Edward. 
Not long afterwards Mary went to France, where she was 
betrothed to the French Dauphin, whom she afterwards 
married. After Somerset's invasion, the Scots became 
more devoted friends of France than ever. Somerset was 
an able man, and was no doubt sincere in his religious 
faith and zeal. But for many reasons he had somerset's 
become very unpopular. He had been cruel in ''"^®- 
his methods, had made enemies of the Scots, had lived 
in great pomp and ostentation, and had shocked the coun- 
try by consigning his own brother. Lord Seymour, to the 
block. It is no wonder that he was overthrown as soon as 
a powerful rival rose to assail him. 

This powerful rival was John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, 
who afterwards became Duke of Northumberland. War- 
wick managed to win a majority of the council of regency 



200 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND^ 

away from Somerset ; and the Protector was forced to 
resio^n his office, to which Warwick succeeded. 

John Dud- ^ ° ' 

ley. Earl of Three years after (1551), Somerset was behead- 
arwic . ^^^ ^^^ ^ charge of felony. Warwick's rule 
was quite as bad as that of Somerset had been. He was 
cold and selfish, and cared more for his own power than 
for the well-being of England. He had an unsuccessful 
war with France, as a result of which he surrendered 
Boulogne. Yet he managed to retain for a while a firm 
grasp upon authority. He soon began to plot to alter the 
succession to the throne. The health of the young king, 
The disputed Edward the Sixth, wrs failing rapidly. It was 
succession. Joubtful which of his sisters, Mary or Elizabeth, 
would secure the throne after his death. Each had her 
fervent partisans. Warwick resolved that, if possible, 
they should both be excluded from the succession. 

Edward the Sixth was a prince of fine intellect, of vir- 
tuous character, and strong, generous impulses. He was 
a very ardent scholar and lover of books. He was deep- 
ly religious, and a zealous Protestant. But his health 
was delicate, and he was easily persuaded by the strong- 
willed Warwick. The result of Warwick's persuasions was 
that Edward set down in his will that Lady Jane Grey 
should be his successor on the throne. Lady 

Edward 

changesthe Janc Grcy was the grand-daughter of the young- 
succession. ^^^ ^j^^jghter (Mar)') of King Henry the Seventh. 
Her claim to the throne w-as therefore remote. Even if 
Mary and Elizabeth, the daughters of Henry the Eighth, 
were both set aside, the next heir, by hereditary right, was 
Mary Queen of Scots, who was descended from the eldest 
daughter (Margaret) of Henry the Seventh. But Warwick, 
who had now became Duke of Northumberland, had two 



THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET. 201 

reasons for insisting upon Lady Jane Grey as Edward's 
heir. Slie was a very earnest Protestant ; and L^dy jane 
she was the wife of Northumberland's son. °''®y- 
Northumberland thought that, by raising her to the throne, 
his own power would become thoroughly established. 

The act of Edward the Sixth in altering the line of 
succession was illegal, since it had not the sanction of 
Parliament, which had been accorded to his father's will. 
Yet when Edward died (1553), Northumberland made a 
desperate attempt to seat Lady Jane upon the throne. 
She was a young lady of rare beauty and accomplishments, 
and seems to have shrunk from the perilous destiny 
which her father-in-law sought to obtain for her. struggle for 
Northumberland attempted to seize the princess *^® t^^rone. 
Mary, Henry the Eighth's eldest daughter; but she escaped 
from his clutches, and rallied her adherents around her at 
Cambridge. She was as devoted a Catholic as Lady Jane 
was a Prorestant. The Catholic party therefore promptly 
hastened to Mary's standard. But many others, who hated 
Northumberland, also came to the princess's aid ; and ere 
long the Protector found himself almost deserted. He 
then turned round and submitted, and even proclaimed 
Mary as queen in his own camp. But he was Marys 
seized, and was soon after tried for high treason t"umph. 
and beheaded. His son. Lord Guildford Dudley, and 
Lady Jane Grey, Lord Guildford's wife, were incarcerated 
n the Tower of London ; and Mary ascended the throne 
unopposed. 



/ 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

QUEEN MARY. 

QUEEN MARY was the daughter of Katherine of 
Arragon, the Spanish princess who was Henry the 
Eighth's first wife, and from whom he was divorced. Like 
Character ^^r mother, Mary was a very earnest Catholic, 
of Mary. ^^^ ^^^^ Sufferings of her mother and herself only 
bound her more closely to her faith, and increased her 
attachment to Spain, the land of her mother's ancestors. 
Mary was plain in person, was not gifted in intellect, and 
was gloomy in disposition and frail in health. She was 
undoubtedly an honest and sincere woman, and in all the 
cruel acts she caused to be committed she believed her- 
self to be doing right and serving God. Her accession to 
Return of the throuc (1553) was the signal for a return of 
the catho- j^j-jg Catholics to power, and for an attempt to 

lies to pOAV- '^ ' ^ 

er. undo the work of the Reformation and restore 

the ancient faith. At this time it is probable that a large 
majority of the English people were still Catholics at heart. 
The persecutions of Henry and Somerset were remem- 
bered with deep bitterness; and the severity with which the 
Reformation had been forced upon the nation caused great 
numbers of the people to hail Mary's accession with plea- 
sure and relief. 




QLTEEN MARY. — Page 202. 



QUEEN MARY. 203 

When she found herself armed with royal powers Mary- 
began at once to set about the task of bringing back 
Catholic ascendancy. She ordered the two Catholic bish- 
ops, Gardiner and Bonner, to be released from Gardiner 
the Tower, and restored to their sees. In their ^'^'^ Bonner 

released 

places, Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, the Protes- from the 
tant bishops, were arrested and imnrisoned. The °^^''' 
English prayer-book was replaced in the churches by the 
old Latin forms. Lady Jane Grey and her husband were 
tried on a charge of high treason, and in the following 
year were beheaded. In a little time Mary had re-estab- 
lished the Catholic form of worship throughout England. 
Her next step was to contract a marriage which she fondly 
hoped would strengthen her position as a Catholic sove- 
reign, as well as add to England's power among the nations 
Her chosen husband was Philip, the heir to the Phuip of 
Spanish crown, to which he soon after succeeded. spam. 
Her subjects were very hostile to this marriage. They 
did not wish a foreigner to be their king, and they feared 
that Philip would come and reign in England. Even the 
Catholic advisers of Mary sought to dissuade her, and to 
prevail on her to marry an English nobleman. 

But Mary had all the stubbornness of will which was a 
family trait of the Tudors. Aside from her belief that a 
marriage with Philip would be wise as a public measure, she 
was really in love with him. When it became known that 
she was not to be moved from her purpose, there ensued a 
profound agitation among the people. There were risings 
of the Protestants in various parts of southern England. 
In Kent a gentleman of rank, Sir Thomas Wy- Revolt of 
att, headed a revolt which soon attracted a large wyatt. 
body of men, at the head of whom he marched on London. 



204 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

Mary now showed all the high spirit of her kingly race. 
She summoned the Londoners to her defence, and Wyatt 
entered the capital only to be utterly routed, taken pris- 
oner, and, with his lieutenants, promptly put to death. 
Five months later Philip arrived in England and 

Marriage of _ . . 

Mary and married the queen. This marriage, besides be- 
^ ^^' ing entirely distasteful to the English, turned out 

to be a most unhappy one for Mary herself. Philip dis- 
liked and neglected her, and in spite of her eager plead- 
ing did not even consent to live with her in England, He 
went off to his wars, and left her to bitterly bewail her un- 
returned affection. 

Mary had restored the Catholic service and practices in 

the English churches. She now resolutely advanced one 

step further, and restored the authority of the Pope in 

En2;land. The Pope, with this end in view, sent 

The Pope's ^ ^ . ' 

authority the English Cardinal Pole, a cousin of the queen, 
to London as his legate. Both Houses of Par- 
liament joined with Mary in an act of solemn submission 
and homage to the Pope's representative. Queen, lords, 
and commons knelt at the feet of the cardinal, who grant- 
ed them absolution for past heresy. All the laws which 
had been enacted against the Papal authority were re- 
pealed ; while those which had in former reigns been 
directed against the Lollards were not only revived, but 
An era of P^t iuto vigorous usc. Then began an era of bit- 
persecution. ^gj. persccution. Mary caught the spirit of the 
cruel Spanish Inquisition, and by her command Protes- 
tants were seized, tried by the bishops, and tortured and 
burned. For three years these cruelties continued almost 
without cessation. The Protestants could now only wor- 
ship after their own way of belief in secret, and in peril of 



QUEEN MARY. 205 

their lives. The English Bible was read in out-of-the-way 
places, in fear and trembling. 

Finally it came the turn of Latimer, Ridlef}^, and Cran- 
mer, the three great leaders of the Protestant cause and 
faith, to suffer for their share in furthering the Reformation. 
Latimer and Ridley were burned at the stake, 
side by side, at Oxford. As the fire mounted and tant mar- 
wrapped about their bodies, Latimer exclaimed to *^'"^" 
his fellow-martyr, " Be of good cheer, Master Ridley, and 
play the man. For we shall this day light such a candle 
in England, by God's grace, as I trust shall never be put 
out." At the prospect of death, Cranmer for a time fal- 
tered in his courage. He wrote a recantation of what he 
had taught, in the hope that he would thereby be spared. 
But when he found that, after all, he too would be led to 
the stake, his courage returned to him, and he solemnly 
reaffirmed his belief in the Protestant faith, cranmer-s 
When he was tied to the stake he loudly called courage, 
upon the people to witness that he died firm in that faith ; 
and added, " Forasmuch as my right hand offended, writing 
contrary to my heart, my hand shall first be punished 
therefor, for when I come to the fire it shall first be 
burned." He then held his right hand steadily in the 
mounting flames, until it had been consumed. So Cran- 
mer died bravely at last. 

Even when the bishops got tired of persecuting, Mary 
sternly commanded them to continue ; and it was thus 
that she received the name of " Bloody Mary." 

^ Mary at- 

She even tried to restore to the church and the tempts to 
monasteries the lands and other property which chm°ch 
had been taken from them in the reign of her ^^^^s- 
father, but did not wholly succeed in this. The monks 



206 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

and friars, however, reappeared, and in many cases returned 
to their former habitations. The last year of 

Mary's 

later trou- M^ry's reign was full of trouble and disaster to 
her. Her neglectful husband, Philip of Spain, in- 
volved England in a war with France, as a result of v^hich 
the English lost the town of Calais, their last remaining 
possession on French territory. This so deeply grieved 
the unhappy queen that she exclaimed, "When I am dead, 
Calais will be found written upon my heart." The Pope 
had taken the part of France in the war, and this added to 
the weight of Mary's sorrows, though it did not lessen her 
zeal in persecuting the Protestants. She had grown to be 
thoroughly detested by her subjects, and her last days 
were passed in loneliness and gloom. The nation which 
Death of ^ad wclcomcd her advent to the throne, in the 
Mary. hope of pcacc and prosperity, as eagerly wel- 

comed her death, which occurred after a brief reign of six 
years (1559)- 

Mary was succeeded by her younger half-sister, Eliza- 
beth, the daughter of Henry the Eighth by his second 
wife, Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth ascended the throne with- 
out opposition from any quarter. At the time of her ac- 
character ccssiou shc was twenty-fivc years of age. She 
ofEiizabeth. |-,.^^| \oug bccu a favorltc of the English people. 
Her sister Mary had persecuted and ill-treated her, had at 
one time kept her a prisoner, and had even contemplated 
putting her to death. This was because Mary felt outraged 
by her father's marriage with Anne Boleyn after putting 
aside her own mother, and also because Elizabeth was a 
Protestant and represented the Protestant cause. Mary 
feared, and perhaps believed, that Elizabeth conspired to 
deprive her of the throne. Yet, with all her cruelty 



QUEEN MARY. 20/ 

towards the Protestants, Mary had a kindly heart ; and 
her sisterly affection for Elizabeth prevented her from 
taking extreme measures against the young princess. 

Elizabeth herself, throughout Mary's reign, conducted 
herself with great prudence and tact. Already, in her 
vouth, she showed those rare qualities of judg- 

' n J & Elizabeth's 

ment which were afterwards to serve England so caution and 
well. She was somewhat giddy and vain, but in 
politics she never allowed herself to pass the bounds of 
caution. When she came to the throne, the event was wel- 
comed with rejoicing throughout the land. At this time 
Elizabeth was good-looking, and possessed many personal 
accomplishments. Tall and stately in form, with rich au- 
burn hair, bright blue eyes, and aquiline nose, she appeared 
to her people every inch a queen. She had a Kuzabeth's 
quick, keen intellect, and was a remarkable learning, 
scholar for her times. She knew Greek, Latin, French, 
and Spanish, and ardently loved poetry and music. Like 
her father, whom she in many ways resembled, Elizabeth 
was fond of pomp and display, of splendid costumes, and 
of all the magnificence of royal state. On the other hand, 
Elizabeth had grave faults. She was capricious, deceitful, 
was not always true to her friends, and was weakly sus- 
ceptible to the flattery of her courtiers. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

THE MAIDEN QUEEN. 

THE reign of Queen Elizabeth was in many respects 
the most brilliant and glorious in English history. It 
covered a period of forty-four years. During its course 
A brilliant England rapidly increased in power, intelligence, 
reign. ^j^^ wealth. Flourishing colonies were founded; 

the arts and industries made rapid advances; English lit- 
erature reached the greatest height it had ever attained ; 
and England became the undisputed mistress of the seas. 
At the same time, although Elizabeth was resolutely des- 
potic, the people grew in political intelligence, and the 
powers of Parliament, while seldom invoked against the 
Religious queen, were well maintained. The early years 
changes. q£ Elizabeth's rule were taken up with religious 
changes. Mary's work in restoring Catholicism and the 
au:hority of the Pope was undone ; not violently, but 
slowly and cautiously. Elizabeth was a Protestant, but, 
like her father, she supported and established Protes- 
tantism rather from political motives than from religious 
zeal. 

Elizabeth aimed, not at suppressing all the practices of 
the Catholic church, but at forming a Church of England, 
The Church which should unite the great body of the people 
of England. -^.^ ^^^g rcligious crccd. She was certainly re- 

208 



THE MAIDEN QUEEN. 2O9 

solved that she, and not the Pope, should be the head of 
the church. At the same time she believed in preserving 
many of the observances and customs to which her people 
had always been accustomed. On the one hand were the 
Catholics, who desired their faith to be maintained in all 
respects. On the other were the extreme Protestants, who 
came to be known as " Puritans," and who desired to 
sweep away every vestige of Catholicism, and establish a 
severe and simple religious service. Between these two 
extremes was the great mass of moderate-minded people ; 
and It was these whom Elizabeth desired to unite in a na- 
tional church. 

In making the religious changes upon which she had 
determined, Elizabeth showed herself to be wise, politic, 
and shrewd. She wished to remain at peace Eiizabeth-s 
with France and Spain, both of which were "moderation. 
Catholic powers , and she wished to avoid alienating the 
Catholic party in England. Gradually, however, the Eng- 
lish Bible and prayer-book, to which were added the lit- 
any and creed, were used again in the churches; while 
many of the symbols of the old faith, such as crucifixes, 
candles, and priestly robes, were retained. Solemn and 
stately ceremonies were still kept up ; the mass was said ; 
and priests were forbidden to marry unless they obtained 
the queen's consent. Parliament declared the supremacy 
queen to be supreme over the church, and the °^ ^'^^ . 
revenues which had been restored by Mary to the church, 
the monasteries and bishops, were taken from them and 
returned to the royal treasury. A body of commissioners 
was appointed to reorganize the church according to the 
plan adopted by Elizabeth ; and all the priests and bish- 
ops were obliged, before entering upon their functions, to 



210 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

take an oath acknowledging the queen to be the head of 
the church. 

Then 'Elizabeth and her Parliament advanced a step 
further. A law was passed compelling the people to go 
regularly to church, and to use the English prayer-book 
Use of the i'^ their devotions. The new i\rchbishop of Can- 
prayer-book. terbury, Mathew Parker, was a morlerate Prot- 
estant, and cordially aided the queen in her policy ^ and 
there were many bishops and priests who readily fell in 
\vith it. There were others, however, who desired to imi- 
tate the persecutions and cruelties of the preceding reign, 
and to punish the Catholics and Puritans who did not ac- 
Treatment ^^P^ ^^^ ^icw ordcr of thiugs. Puritau preachers 
of Puritans, ^ygj-g tumcd out of their parishes, and in some 
cases were cast into prison for refusing to obey the new 
laws. But men were not put to death for their faith's 
sake. It was only when those who were hostile to the 
new church also conspired against the throne, that they 
were led to the scaffold. 

The same religious discords and troubles which existed 

in England, prevailed also in the other European countries. 

In Spain the horrors of the Inquisition had 

Religious 

discord in long bccn practised; and Philip of Spain wrs 
Europe. ^^^^ ^^^ head of the Catholic party of Europe. 
He was engaged in trying to put down the revolt in 'the 
Netherlands, where the Protestants especially had risen 
against the cruel rule of the Spaniards ; and he desired to 
wed Elizabeth, so as to finally add England to his 

Philip re- jo 

jected by dominious. Elizabeth, however, not only refused 

her hand to Philip, who had married and then 

neglected her sister Mary, but she gave some ^id to the 

Netherlands in their struggle against Philip's tyranny, The 



THE MAIDEN QUEEN. 211 

breach thus caused between Elizabeth and Philip resulted 
later in one of the most brilliant events in English history 
— the invasion and defeat of the Spanish Armada; of 
which we shall soon hear. 

In France and Scotland, too, the strife between the 
churches became bitter and even bloody. These two na- 
tions were still, as they had long been, in alliance against 
England. Mary, the young Queen of Scots, was 
the wife of the heir of the French king ; and she Queen of 
also laid claim to the English throne, ,as the 



i- 



descendant of Henry the Seventh's daughter Margaret. 
Mary's party declared that Elizabeth was not entitled to 
the throne, on the ground that the marriage of her mother 
with Henry the Eighth had not been legal. Many Eng- 
lish Catholics supported Mary's claim, and many plots 
were formed to get rid of Elizabeth, and elevate Mary in 
her place. In Scotland the nobles and people 
were sharply divided between the Protestants diviS^ons^n 
and the Catholics. At the head of the reformers Scotland, 
was the stern and resolute John Knox, who had been a 
prisoner in France, and had returned to Scotland to 
preach and teach the Puritan faith. 

Knox boldly denounced the frivolities and vanities of 
the Scottish court, and waged a fierce warfare with the 
Catholics who rallied to Mary's support. A certain num- 
ber of the Scottish lords bound themselves by a solemn 
covenant to defend Knox and the other Puritan preachers 
They seized Edinburgh, and appealed to Eliza- Ascendancy 
beth for aid in their conflict with the Catholics. °^ *^® ®''°*- 

tish Protes- 

The Protestant party in Scotland at last pre- tants. 
vailed. Puritanism became the religion of the kingdom, 
and the Scottish alliance with France was broken off. 



212 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

Mary, who was all this while in France, refused to accept 
this settlement of the religious question. Her husband, 
Francis II., had succeeded to the French throne, but 
soon after died (1560). Then Mary returned to Scotland 
and assumed the governmenr of her realm. At first, 
being wisely counselled by her half-brother, the Earl of 
Murray, she treated the Protestants in a friendly spirit, 
and they, in their turn, did not resist her rule. 

But after a few years Mary's conduct aroused anew a 

fierce spirit of resistance to her, which in the end drove 

her from the kinirdom. Marv Queen of Scots 

Mary's ° . ^ 

beauty and was Celebrated far and wide for her radiant per- 
sonal beauty, the exceeding charm of her man- 
ner, and for her gaiety and love of pleasure. She seemed 
to fascinate every one who came near her, except the stern 
Puritan preachers. A lovely and attractive widow of nine- 
teen, with a crown as her dower, she was eagerly sought in 
marriage. She finally bestowed her hand upon her cousin, 
Lord Darnley, who, like herself, was a descendant of the 
English Henry the Seventh. By this marriage Mary 
thought that she strengthened her own claim to the Eng- 
lish throne. It proved, however, a most unfortunate union. 
Death of Darnley became jealous of the queen's favorite, 
Darnley. Rizzio, and causcd him to be murdered. About 
a year afterward Darnley himself was killed, the house in 
which he was staying being blown up with gunpowder. 
Rightly or wrongly, Mary was suspected of having con- 
nived at this crime. 

Two months after the death of her second husband, 
Mary married a powerful Scottish nobleman, the Earl of 
Bothwell, who w^as also suspected of having been concerned 
in Darnley's death, and who had put away his wife in order 




CAPTURE OF MARY QIJEEX OI' SCOTS. — Page 21.^. 



THE MAIDEN QUEEN. 213 

to wed the queen. This marriage aroused a storm of in- 
dignation throughout Scotland, and Bothwell was forced to 
flee from the country. He escaped from his angry ene- 
mies : but Mary was captured and incarcerated 

•' Mary takes 

in the Castle of Loch Leven. She succeeded, refuge in 
however, in making her escape ; but her adher- '^^ ^" 
ents being defeated in the battle of Langside, she fied to 
England, and threw herself upon Elizabeth's protection 
(1568). Elizabeth treated her cousin as a prisoner, and 
never allowed her to go free again. The presence of 
Mary in England was a constant danger to Elizabeth. 
The English Catholics looked upon the Scottish queen as. 
a martyr, and many of tlum believed that she had a right 
to the English throne. Hence arose conspiracies, not 
only to dethrone Elizabeth, but to murder her. 

The first of these attempts to get rid of the queen was 
made by the northern earls of Northumberland and West- 
moreland, whose rising, however, was speedily subdued by 
the Earl of Warwick. Then an Italian named 
Ridolfi concocted a scheme for marrying Mary against 
Queen of Scots to the Catholic Duke of Norfolk ; 
but this, too, miserably failed. Twelve years later a Cath- 
olic gentleman, Throgmorton, made a deep-laid plot to 
murder Elizabeth, and in this plot it was said that the 
Spanish ambassador was concerned. But Throgmorton, 
too, was seized and speedily executed. The enemies of 
Elizabeth were not easily discouraged. Three years after 
Throgmorton's failure, a number of young Catholic gentle- 
men, led by Anthony Babington, combined to Babington's 
take the queen's life. Their letters were inter- conspiracy, 
cepted, and it was found that they were in communication 
with the imprisoned Mary Queen of Scots. 



214 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

At last the conspirators were arrested, and Mary herself 
was put on trial for plotting against the life of Elizabeth. 
Mary eagerly denied that she had been concerned in the 
attempt ; but aside from the fact that the proofs of her 
guilt seemed strong, Elizabeth's advisers were resolved to 
get rid forever of so dangerous a claimant to the throne. 
Mary was adjudged guilty. But now Elizabeth shrank 
Execution f^om putting her cousin to death. Mary had 
Qu^e^n"'L'f sought rcfugc at her court, and there were ties 
Scots. Qf blood between them. Elizabeth, though 

often arbitrary and capricious, was not cruel by nature. 
At last she was persuaded to sign Mary's death war- 
rant; and the fair Queen of Scots met her fate with the 
courage and dignity of a heroine. Elizabeth repented the 
execution as soon as it had taken place ; and rather 
meanly charged it upon her advisers, saying that when she 
signed the warrant she did not intend that the penalty 
should be inflicted. (1587). 

Mary's death put an end to the trouble as to the posses- 
sion of, and succession to, the throne. She left an only 
James soH, Jauics, who at the time of her death was 
Stuart. l^ing of Scotland, and was now the undoubted 
heir of Elizabeth. As James had been reared as a Prot- 
estant the Catholics did not care to try to place hrni on 
the throne, as they had done in the case of his Catholic 
mother. But the troubles which Mary's presence in 
England had for many years created were not the only 
ones which beset Elizabeth's reign. The religious con- 
flict still went on with almost unabated bitterness. The 
Pope excommunicated Elizabeth, and in many ways en- 
couraged the English Catholics to oppose her. The 
ruling Protestants retorted by making more stringent laws 



I 
I 



THE MAIDEN QUEEN. 215 

against Catholicism, declaring it treason to question the 
queen's supremacy, and holding the clergy to a 

, ' r 1 11- ■, Severe laws 

strict observance ot the new church services and against the 
rules. The French and Spaniards were always ^^*^°"^«- 
seeking to stir up religious discord in England, and this 
served to draw the English together, and to induce them 
the more readily to receive the new religious settlement. 

The enemies of Elizabeth did not confine their attempts 
against her to England. They also stirred up several re- 
volts in Ireland. The Irish had always been Revolts m 
steadily hostile to English rule ; and the English ^'•eiand. 
power was by no means complete over the subject isle. 
Elizabeth ruled the Irish with great severity and cruelty, 
as most of her predecessors had done before her. So the 
Irish were easily incited to rebel against her authority. 
Several risings took place (1565-79), in the last 
of which the Irish were aided by Spanish and power in 
Italian troops: but in each case they were sub- i'^^^^'^'* 

i ' -' restored. 

dued by the superior prowess of the English 
arms. Elizabeth finally asserted her power throughout 
Ireland. But a greater struggle, with a far mightier foe, 
was now at hand, to meet whom required all the resources 
and energies of the proud queen and her realm. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

THE DEFEAT OF SPAIN. 

THROUGHOUT Elizabeth's reign the Spanish king, 
Philip the Second, had been either actively or passively- 
hostile to England. His pride had been deeply wounded at 
Philip of Elizabeth's refusal to marry him. Besides, he was 
Spain. ^i^g champion of the Catholic cause in Europe, 

and hence was bound to oppose Protestantism wherever it 
had become strong ; and he recognized in England the 
most powerful of Protestant nations. Nor were these the 
only reasons for Philip's enmity. England had now^ be- 
come Spain's rival on the sea. A race of great English 
sailors and buccaneers had come up, who roved over the 
Great Eng- occaus, and oftcu did great damage to the Span- 
lish sailors. jg|-^ fleg^s and gallcous. Among them were the 
bold Sir Francis Drake, who was the first Englishman who 
sailed completely round the world ; Sir John Hawkins, 
Martin Frobisher, and the courtly and adventurous Sir 
Walter Raleigh. 

England, by her prowess on the sea, had become Spain's 
rival in making distant conquests and founding remote 
Distant colouics ; and the proud Spaniards therefore 
and'^coio*^ looked upou England with redoubled jealousy 
nies. and hatred. Philip had for some time been en- 

gaged in quelling a rebellion in his dominion of the Nether- 

216 



THE DEFEAT OF SPAIN. 21/ 

lands, and Elizabeth had in some ways lent aid and com- 
fort to these rebellious subjects of his. She had sent a 
small army under her favorite, the Earl of Leicester, to 
the Netherlands, but it did not perform any notable ex- 
ploits. It was during this expedition that the noble and 
gallant Sir Philip Sidney was killed. Lying mor- Death of 
tally wounded on the battlefield. Sir Philip was ^'^^^y- 
about to drink a cup of water. Seeing, however, a poor 
stricken soldier lying near him, parched with thirst, he 
gave him the water, saying, " Thy need is greater than 
mine." 

At last Philip, exasperated by the depredations of 
Drake, Hawkins, and Raleigh on the sea, and by the aid 
sent to the Netherlands, resolved to undertake the invasion 
of England. He had a very fine army in the Netherlands, 
commanded by the Prince of Parma, one of the foremost 
generals of the age. He had also a powerful fleet, which 
he had taken years to build and get ready for Phmp-s 
action. With these, the haughty Philip did not ^®^*- 
doubt that he could invade and conquer the English. 
But happily England had in Elizabeth a ruler of stout 
heart and ardent love of country. It was fortunate for 
Elizabeth, too, that she had at her service so many able 
generals and brilliant admirals, the latter of whom, at 
least, were unrivalled in genius and experience throughout 
the world. She possessed another great advantage in the 
rare wisdom of her advisers. A o;roup of pru- 

* '^ ^ Elizabeth's 

dent, far-seeing, and devoted statesmen sur- wiseadvis- 
rounded her throne from the besinninof to the 



ers. 



& 



end of her lons^ reis^n. The most famous of them were 
Lord Burleigh, Sir Francis Walsingham, and, later in her 
reign, Lord Bacon and Sir Robert Cecil. 



2l8 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

While Philip was getting ready to invade England, an 
English fleet, under the intrepid Drake, suddenly entered 
Cadiz harbor, attacked the Spanish ships anchored there, 
destroyed forty of them, and retired again to England in 
safety (1587). This blow delayed Philip's enterprise for a 
year. But late in the following spring (1588) Philip's 
great fleet, consisting of one hundred and thirty war-ships, 
^ and boastfully called "the Invincible Armada," 

Sailing of _ -^ _ _ ' 

the Arma- set Sail for the English waters. A Spanish army 
under Parma meanwhile was assembled at Dun- 
kirk. Philip's plan was that the Armada should go to 
Dunkirk, take Parma's army on board, and land it on the 
English coast. The Armada had twenty five hundred 
cannon, and the captains of the ships were picked from 
the flower of the Spanish navy. 

As soon as it became known in England that the Ar- 
mada had set sail, the fervent patriotic spirit of the coun- 
trv, led and inspired by the dauntless queen herself, was 
Elizabeth instantly aroused. Elizabeth made ready to 
prepares to YYieet hcr aucicnt foe with unquailino; heart. 

meet the ^ 

invasion. Her fleet was small and weak. She asked the 
city of London to give her fifteen ships and five thou- 
sand men. The city, in reply, promptly agreed to fit out 
thirty ships and to furnish ten thousand men. But after 
all was done, the English fleet only comprised eighty ves- 
sels all told, the largest of which was scarcely larger than 
the smallest of the ships in the Armada. The command 
of the fleet was given to Lord Howard of Effingham. 
Under him, as captains, were Drake, Hawkins, and Fro- 
bisher. The fleet assembled at Plymouth, on the English 
Channel, to await the approach of the Armada. Mean- 
while the queen quickly assembled her army, which had 



THE DEFEAT OF SPAIN. 219 

been raised with marvellous rapidity, at Tilbury ; and she 
herself appeared among her soldiers, arousing Elizabeth 
their ardor to the highest pitch. "I have," ^t Tiibury. 
she exclaimed, "but the body of a woman. But I have 
the heart of a king, and of a king of England, too ; and 
think foul scorn that Parma, or Spain, or any prince 
of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my 
realms ! " 

When the Armada sailed into the Channel (July 21, 
1588) the English fleet waited in Plymouth harbor until it 
e:ot by. Then Howard and Drake sallied forth 
and assailed the big Spanish galleons in the da in the 
rear. At the same time numberless small craft ^^^^ ' 
issued in swarms from the English harbors along the 
channel, and joined the fleet in harassing the enemy. 
This continued for several days. The Armada cast anchor 
off Calais, in order to effect a junction wath the army under 
Parma. But Parma's troops, held in check by an English 
squadron off the Netherlands coast, failed to make their 
appearance. The English continued to assail the great 
Spanish ships ; and one night Howard caused six of his 
old vessels to be filled with combustible matter, set on fire, 
and driven into the midst of the enemy's fleet. T^e English 
This caused the greatest confusion to the Armada, ^-t*^*^^- 
The cables of the galleons were cut in haste, and the 
ships were forced to retreat out of Calais harbor, re. 
lentlessly followed up and fired into all the while by the 
English craft.^ 

The Spaniards were now forced to give up the project of 
invading England, and could only try to get back home in 
safety. As they fled northward, the ships of the Armada 
were scattered here and there, and met with nothing 



220 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

but disaster. They were assailed by furious gales, and many 
of them were wrecked on the Scottish and Irish 
tureofthe coasts. Of the ouc hundred and thirty noble 
Armada. yggseig which had proudly set sail from Spain, 
only fifty-three returned to tell the tale of their complete 
discomfiture. The defeat and destruction of the Armada 
was a most important event and turning-point in English 
history. It put an end to all further danger from Philip 
and the Spaniards. It established England's supremacy 
on the high seas. It raised Elizabeth's power at home 
and influence abroad to a great height. It made the Pro- 
testant party in England stronger than ever. The English 
Results of Catholics, indeed, had shown themselves as 
the defeat patriotic and as eager to aid the queen in 

of the ^ ° ^ 

Spaniards, repelling the Spaniards as the Protestants ; and 
after the splendid victory over the Armada, the English 
people were far more united than before. This event, 
indeed, may be said to have changed the whole course of 
the world's civilization. One of its indirect results was to 
make North America the possession of the English in- 
stead of that of the Spaniards. But for the defeat of 
the Armada, the Pilgrims might never have landed at 
Plymouth, nor John Smith at Jamestown. 

For eight years after the defeat of the Armada, England 
and Spain were at peace with each other. Lord Bur- 
A period of l^igh, Elizabeth's oldest and wisest counsellor, 
peace. ^^^^ opposcd to the Continuation of the war, and 

for a long time his counsels prevailed. But gradually the 
older statesmen were passing away, and a race of younger 
statesmen, who were enterprising and fond of warfare, 
were gathering about the queen. Of these younger men, 
the most conspicuous was the Earl of Essex, who was 



THE DEFEAT OF SPAIN. 221 

impulsive, generous, liandsome, and cliivalrous. Eliz- 
abeth's favorite courtier, the Earl of Leicester, The Eari of 
died soon after the victory over Spain ; and ^^sex. 
ere very long Essex became her favorite in Leicester's 
place. Essex persuaded her to resume hostilities with 
Spain, and himself commanded an expedition, which at- 
tacked and plundered Cadiz (1596). But this naval 
war was a brief one, and came to an end in the follow- 
ing year. 

A revolt soon after broke out in Ireland, headed by 
Hugh O'Neil. Essex, who was appointed lord-lieutenant, 
went over to put down the rebel chief. But o'Neirs 
when he got there he made peace with O'Neil. ^^voit. 
The favorite returned to England to find himself in dis- 
grace. Sir Robert Cecil, Burleigh's son, had acquired a 
supreme influence over Elizabeth, and Essex was excluded 
from the court, deprived of his offices and detained in his 
house as a prisoner. At last Essex, with his friends, con- 
cocted a plot against the queen. This plot miserably 
failed, and Essex was tried, found guilty of high Execution 
treason, and executed (1601). Elizabeth had o^^^sex. 
been very fond of Essex ; and the death of her favorite, 
though she had unwillingly consented to it, gave her great 
and lasting sorrow. 

Elizabeth in her old age became unpopular among her 
subjects, and found herself bereft of many of her old 
counsellors by death or desertion. She was sad, lonely, 
and irritable ; and her latter years were full of gloom. 
She died at the age of seventy (1603), hav- Death of 
ing sat upon the English throne for a period ^li^abeth. 
of no less than forty-four years. She left England far more 
rich, strong, and prosperous than when she became queen. 



222 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

Throughout her long reign she had been entirely devoted 
to the well-being of her realm; and although she always 
ruled with a strong hand, she knew how to yield when she 
became persuaded that it was the will of her subjects that 
she should do so. 



i 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 

THE period included in the reigns of the five Tudor 
sovereigns (i 485-1 603) was one of remarkable growth 
in every direction. Early in that period, what was known 
as the "Renaissance," or revival of the spirit of Rapid 
learnino^ and art from a lono^ torpor, took place f;^"'^^^ °^^ 

c> & r ' 1 the English 

in Europe. Literature, painting, architecture, nation, 
the study of the Greek and Latin languages, discoveries in 
the sciences, religious and philosophical discussion, im- 
provements in the methods of living, researches into an- 
cient history, began to be vigorously cultivated in every 
part of the continent ; and the influence of this wonderful 
revival made itself strongly felt in England. 

It was an age, too, in which momentous discoveries were 
made in various parts of the world remote from Europe. 
Columbus discovered America, Vasco da Gama An age of 
found the sea route to India, and the Cabots <iiscovery. 
made their memorable voyages along the North American 
coast, in t^ie reign of Henry the Seventh ; while in that of 
Elizabeth the English and Spaniards explored and took 
possession of many places on both continents of the west- 
ern hemisphere. English colonies were planted English 
not only in America, but on the distant coasts ''°^°'^^^^- 
of Asia ; it was nine years after the death of Elizabeth 

223 



224 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

that the first English settlement was established on the 
western coast of Hindostan. 

Under the Tudors, too, English literature reached its 
ripest and most brilliant development. Tyndale, the trans- 
lator of the Bible, Sir Thomas More, Erasmus, the Earl 
of Surrey, and many other able writers flourished in the 
times of Henry the Seventh and Henry the Eighth. But 
it was in the reign of Elizabeth that En^rlish lit- 

The zenith * , ® 

of English craturc reached its highest degree of excellence 
and glory. Poetry, the drama, history, philoso- 
phy, all flourished with unexampled brilliancy under the 
Maiden Queen. First among the great Elizabethan wri- 
ters, alone and unapproachable, was William Shakespeare, 
whose plays were mostly written during the latter part of 
Elizabeth's reign, and who survived that queen by thirteen 
Poets and years. Among the famous poets of Elizabeth's 
writers. ^jj-j-^g were Edmuud Spenser, the author of the 
" Faerie Queen," Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Philip Sidney, 
Drayton, Marlowe, and Greene. In the same reign flou- 
rished Francis Lord Bacon, the foremost philosopher of 
his time, who wrote the " Novum Organum," and many 
other celebrated works, which are still read and admired. 

The Tudor sovereigns were self-willed and despotic, 
and the Parliaments which sat during their rule were al- 
most always submissive to the roval authoritv. 

The Tudors "' ' . ' 

and pariia- Yct cach Tudor acknowledged the rights and 
^^"^ ' powers of the representatives of the people, and 

sought the sanction of Parliament for every step the sove- 
reign took. When, as sometimes happened. Parliament 
set itself sturdily against the sovereign's will, the sovereign 
yielded. On one occasion, Parliament voted to abolish 
the monopolies in trade which Elizabeth had granted as 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 225 

rewards to her courtiers ; and the queen, haughty as she 
was, gracefully accepted the vote, saying that " she had no 
thought in her heart, except the good of her sub- Eiizabeth-s 
jects." So it was that, strong as the royal power patriotism, 
was in the hands of the Tudors, the authority of Parlia- 
ment was maintained, and was established on firmer foun- 
dations than ever. Meanwhile the power of the nobility 
had grown less and less. 

During the period of the Tudors, rapid advances were 
made in the arts and material appliances in England. 
Some of the most noted English edifices, the Progress of 
old St. Paul's Cathedral, Whitehall, St. James's t^^arts. 
Palace, Hampton Court, and Christ's Hospital were built. 
Cotton thread was invented, leaden conduits for water 
were introduced, and pins were first used, in the reign of 
Henry the Eighth ; in which reign, also, the English pound 
sterling was first called a "sovereign." In the brief reign 
of Edward the Sixth, a great number of schools, hospitals, 
and almshouses were built in England. It was in this 
reign that England for the first time opened a trade with 
Russia. Coaches were first used, flax and hemp were first 
cultivated, starch came into vogue in washing, and drink- 
ing glasses were first made, in the time of Queen Mary. 

Under Elizabeth, many material improvements were in- 
troduced. In her reign, potatoes were brought from Amer- 
ica and planted in English soil ; Raleigh made known the 
uses of tobacco to Enjilishmen ; the art of paper- 

^ ^ ' Material 

makmg was begun at Dartford ; the first English improve- 
newspaper, " The English Mercuric," was is- °'^"*^- 
sued ; telescopes wer.e brought from Holland, and decimal 
arithmetic was borrowed from Flanders; silk stockings 
first came into fashion; Birmingham and Sheffield be- 



226 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

gan the manufacture of cutlery, and Manchester began 
weavinoj; the whale and cod-fisheries of Eno;- 

"Westmin- ° ' *=• 

ster and Rug- land wcrc first pursued; Westminster and Rug- 
by schools were established ; and theatres be- 
came a fashionable recreation. 

The condition of the common people of England greatly 
improved during the era of the Tudor kings and queens. 
The arts of making silk and cloth, of dyeing, and of agri- 
culture made marked progress. Men found more work to 
,do, as the various industries became more various 

Condition of ' 

the common and numcrous, and the poor did not suffer so des- 
perately as they had done in former times. The 
very poor and the helpless were aided by the churches, as 
they had once been aided by the monks and priests ; and 
early in the reign of Elizabeth the first " poor-law " was 
passed, by which taxes were laid upon the people of a dis- 
trict, to support the poor living in that district. A poor- 
law has remained in operation in England ever since. 

The manner in which the English upper classes in the 
times of the Tudors lived would seem very rude and un- 
The upper comfortablc to us, who dwell amid the luxuries 
classes. q£ j-j^g nineteenth century. But the nobles and 
rich land-owners and merchants were at least much more 
comfortable than their ancestors of the preceding century. 
Their houses were better built, and were much more orna- 
mental, inside and out. A rich style of architecture came 
into vogue, which was called the "Elizabethan" style; 
and many of the nobles adopted it in building their castles 
and country houses. Some of the wealthiest nobles now 
Noblemen's had not Only their JiQUse in London, but three 
households. Qj. £q^jj. seats in the country, which they kept up 
with much state ; moving from one to the other as the fit 



PROGRESS OF_THE PEOPLE. 22/ 

took them, and conveying all their household goods and 
retinue with them each time they moved. The higher 
classes ate beef, mutton, chickens, geese, and pork, and 
drank beer and wine. Their servants subsisted for the 
most part on salt meat or fish. The nobles vied with each 
other in the numbers and costliness of their retinues of 
servants, in the elegancies of their households, and in the 
sumptuousness of their feasts and pastimes. 



CFIAPTER XXXVII. 

THE HOUSE OF STUART. 

JAMES the First, the successor of Elizabeth, was the 
only child of the ill-fated Mary Queen of Scots, and at 
the time of his accession to the En2:lish throne was reiiin- 
ino^ in Scotland as Tames the Sixth. His title 

Title of * '' 

James to to thc English crown was derived from his de- 
scent from Margaret, the daughter of Henry the 
Seventh. No one disputed his right, and he was peaceably 
crowned king (1603). England and Scotland thus came 
under the rule of the same sovereign ; but each country 
continued for a century longer to have its separate Par- 
liament, church, and laws. James was the first of the most 
unfortunate and unwise line of kings that England ever 
had. All the Stuarts had more or less unhappy careers. 
One of them lost his life, and another was driven from 
his realm in exile. 

At the time of his accession, James was thirty-six years 

years of age. Although his mother was a Catholic, he 

had been educated in Scotland as a Protestant, 

Character ' 

and person- and to this faith he adhered as long as he lived, 
ance of Jamcs was selfish, cowardly, dissolute, utterly 
^^^s. wanting in dignity, uncouth in appearance, and 
awkward in gait and manner. He was quite intelligent, 
fond of books, sometimes a good talker, with a certain 

228 




i i ;i. ill'! 



m 






M-^-*! •»/■ SV,, 



!• ■» 'ff 















CORONA'IION OF JAMES I. — Page 228. 



THE HOUSE OF STUART. 229 

quaint wit, and with a passion for writing long treatises and 
essays. But he was pedantic and garrulous, and his word 
could not be trusted. He was, in short, anything but 
kingly in person or in character. His reign, in its lack of 
wisdom and foresight, prepared the way for the stirring 
events which finally secured political liberty to the Eng- 
lish people. 

In his dealings with the different religious sects, James 
followed the example and methods of Elizabeth. He sus- 
tained the Church of Eno^land, which Elizabeth 

'^ _ James's 

had established and imposed upon her subjects, despotic 
He opposed the Puritans on one hand, and the 
Catholics on the other. He strictly enforced the laws 
which had been made in Elizabeth's time against both 
these sects, and which compelled the people to conform to 
and reo^ularly attend the authorized church ser- ^ 

^ ■> Severity- 

vices. He was, however, more severe towards against 

the Puritans than towards the Catholics; for he and Puri- 
thought the Puritans wished to do away with the *^''^- 
bishops, and to rule the church, as it was ruled in Scotland, 
by the popular will. As the bishops were appointed by the 
king, to do away with them would be to lessen the royal 
power; and of the royal power James was very tenacious. 
Besides, the bishops taught that the king had a "divine 
right" to rule ; a doctrine very acceptable to James's arbi- 
trary spirit. 

Parliament, on the other hand, rather favored the Puri- 
tans, and was bitterly hostile to the Catholics. It wished 
to o:ive the Puritans the liberty to worship in their own 
wav ; while it suspected the Catholics of plots against the 
kingdom, and desired altogether to suppress them. Thus, 
at the very beginning of his reign, James began to dis- 



230 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

agree with Parliament. At first he tried to treat the repre- 
sentatives of the people with a high hand, as the 

Disagree- 1 r & ? 

ments be- Tudors had done. He forbade Parliament to 
cTo^^and deal with church matters at all ; and he at times 
Parliament, disregarded the laws made by Parliament. But 
he soon found that the English people and their represent- 
atives would not submit to the same despotic treatment 
from him which they had quietly borne from the Tudors. 
They saw in him a very different ruler from the 

Unpopular- ■' . •' 

ity of majestic and patriotic Elizabeth. She had 

ames. j^nowu how, at the proper tim.e, to yield to her 
people's desires. James was not so wise. 

In the third year of James's reign, a plot was formed 

by a small party of Catholics to blow^ up the Houses of 

Parliament (1605). The leading spirit in this conspiracy 

was Guy Fawkes. A number of barrels filled 

The conspir- 
acy of Guy with gunpowder were secretly hid in the cellar 

^^ ^^' under the Houses, on the eve of the day when 
the king would open Parliament in person. The inten- 
tion was to blow up king, princes, courtiers, lords, and 
commons, all at once. But the king's advisers got wind of 
the plot, and Guy Fawkes was seized in the cellar, where 
he was getting ready to set the barrels on fire. Fawkes and 
several of his confederates were executed. This "gun- 
powder plot," as it is called, created a great excitement 
throughout England. The Catholics denounced it as bit- 
terly as the Protestants; but the result of the abortive 
conspiracy was, that the Catholics were treated more 
harshly than ever, and many innocent men of that faith 
suffered for the crime of a handful. 

The Puritans did not conspire against the crown ; but 
they were so much restricted in their liberties, and were so 




GUY FAWKES AT WORK. -Page 



330. 



THE HOUSE OF STUART. 23 1 

tyrannically dealt with if they ventured to worship in their 
own way, that at last some of them left Eno^land 

-" '^ Emigration 

forever, and settled at Plymouth, in Massachu- of Puri- 
setts (1620). Others went later to Salem in the 
same State. These were the founders of our great nation. 
As the years went by, more and more Puritans 

•^ -" . . . New Bn^- 

crossed the Atlantic to join their brethren in landsettie- 
America, and seek freedom on the rugged New ^^^ ^' 
England shores. 

The disagreements between James and Parliament in- 
creased as time advanced. The king desired to make 
peace and be friendly with Spain, England's ancient ene- 
my and rival on the seas. With this end in view, he pro- 
jected a marriage between his e'dest son, the Prince of 
Wales, and the daughter of Philip the Third, the Spanish 
king. James had a handsome and dissolute favorite, 
Georo^e Villiers, whom he created Duke of Buck- 

. . The Duke 

ingham ; and this favorite entered heartily into of Bucking- 
the marriage project. P)uckingham accompanied ^^' 
Prince Charles (the king's eldest son, Henry, had died 
young) to Spain to see the Infanta ; but on their return to 
England, Charles refused to accept her as his wife. Still 
the king did his utmost to be on good terms with Spain. 
Parliament and the people ardently opposed an alliance 
with that nation, both because Spain had long been Eng- 
land's foe, and because Spain was the leading Catholic 
power of Europe. 

James's daughter Elizabeth was married to Frederic, the 
Elector Palatine of the Rhine. This prince was The Elector 
one of the leading Protestant rulers in Europe, ^''ederic. 
Frederic was elected king of Bohemia ; but the emperor of 
Germany made war upon him, and expelled him not only 



232 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

from Bohemia, but from the Palatinate. One reason why 
James desired to be on good terms with Spain was, in or- 
der to induce Philip to befriend his son-in-law. But he did 
not succeed in winning the alliance with Spain, although 
he caused the brave Sir Walter Raleigh, who had 

Execution r- i o • i 

of Sir wai- alwavs bccu a relentless enemy of the Spaniards, 
ter Raleigh. ^^ ^^ behcadcd, in order to please the Spanish 
king. The marriage of the English princess Elizabeth to 
the Elector is important to us, because from that marriage 
sprang the House of Hanover, which has reigned in Eng- 
land for nearly two centuries. 

As James's reign drew to a close, the breach between 
him and Parliament became wider and wider. James was 
The "divine ^^^ ^^'st English king who claimed to rule by 
right." "divine right;" which meant that, no matter 
how badly he governed, his right to rule was sanctioned 
by God, that he acquired this right by birth, and that no 
human power could depose him. To this doctrine Parlia- 
ment became more and more opposed as James grew more 
arbitrary. He refused to submit to the demands of Par- 
liament, and summoned it as seldom as possible. He 
tried to do without its consent to the raising of money, 
and on various pretexts extorted money from the people 
in spite of the refusal of their representatives to grant it. 
He chose his ministers as he pleased, and kept them in 
office after they had become obnoxious to Parliament. 
Thus there arose a contention between the crown and the 
Parliament, which was destined to continue for many years, 
and to result fatally to the House of Stuart. 

One of the most notable events of the latter part of 
James's reign was the impeachment and disgrace of the 
great Lord Bacon. Lord Bacon was famous both as a 




SIR WALTER RALEIGH IX PRLSOX.- p.,oe 



232. 



THE HOUSE OF STUART. 233 

lawyer and as a philosopher. He had become Lord Chan- 
cellor of England, and had made many enemies, ^riai and 
He was now impeached by the Commons before disgrace of 

^ ■' Lord Ba- 

the Lords on the charge of having accepted con. 

bribes in his judicial capacity (1620). He was found 
guilty, deprived of his otBce, and condemned to pay a 
heavy fine. It was fully proved that Bacon had taken 
money from suitors in his court. But it is doubtful wheth- 
er he looked upon such presents as bribes to affect his 
iudgments. In the last vears of his rei2:n, Tames 

•' =* ^ " . . Last years 

broke the promises which he made to his Parlia- and death 

f. f , , , ^ of James. 

ment in return for a grant 01 money ; and thus left 
a legacy of trouble to his unfortunate successor. James 
died after reigning in Englar.d twenty-two years, in the 
fifty-eighth year of his age (1625). 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 

CHARLES the Eirst, the son and successor of James, 
was a very different man, both in person and in 
character, from his father. He was tall and dignified, 
Character ^^ith a rcfincd face and a graceful figure. He 
of Charles I. ^^g courtlj. Upright in his habits, a faithful hus- 
band, a devoted father, and sincerely pious and moral. 
Yet there were defects in his character which made him 
more obnoxious and far more unfortunate as a ruler 
than James. When he gave his word, he could not be 
trusted to keep it. He held the same convic- 

Charles's 

arbitrary tiou which his father had, that his birth entitled 
him to rule by divine right ; that his will was 
therefore above and independent of that of his subjects ; 
and that there was no power which could deprive him of 
his crown. 

At the very beginning of his reign, Charles committed 
acts which were as offensive to his people as those which 
James had committed in his later years. Charles carried 
Charles matters with a high hand from the first. He as- 
asserts his gertcd his roval " preroo^ative," or authority, as 

preroga- ^ i o y j ' 

tive. soon as he took the reins of power. The first 

thing he did which his subjects disliked was to marry the 
French princess Henrietta Maria, who was a Catholic. The 

2:14 




LANDING OF THE PRINCESS lIENRIPmA MARIA. — Page 234. 



THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 235 

new queen brought over with her a host of French follow- 
ers and attendants, who swarmed in the palace, much to 
the disgust of the English. Charles at last had the sense 
to send away these foreigners, and thus to get rid of one 
source of disagreement with his subjects. But, ere long, 
far more serious subjects of contention between the crown 
and the people arose. 

As time had gone on, the Puritans, who were opposed 
both to the Church of England and to the Catholics, had 
increased rapidly in numbers, and had grown strong in 
the country- They now included a large por- ^he Puri- 
tion of the middle or trading classes of the *^''^- 
towns, and of the small farmers and plain people of the 
rural districts. In religious feeling, the Puritans were for 
the most part austere, narrow, intolerant, devoted to a 
severe simplicity of worship, hostile to hilarity or amuse- 
ment, gloomy of manner, and rigidly plain in attire. They 
adopted many customs which seem strange to us. They 
took to themselves not only Biblical names, such as " Eze- 
kiel," and " Matthew," but even more ridiculous names, 
expressive of religious qualities, such as " Praise-God," 
"Mercy," and "Kill-sin." Yet, with all their solemnity 
and dismal austerity, the Puritans were ardent lovers of 
liberty, were full of sincerity and truthfulness, and pos- 
sessed a grim and steadfast courage which finally tri- 
umphed over all their enemies. 

The Puritans became bitterly opposed to Charles, from 
the moment that he showed his intention to maintain his 
prerogative, to support the Church of En2:land, 

. . to ' Puritan op- 

and to suppress their own worship as well as the position to 
liberties of the people. Charles, however, had a 
vigorous and powerful party which stood stoutly by his 



236 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

throne. The Puritans came to be called " Roundheads," 
because they cut their hair very close to their heads. 
Charles's party was known by the more romantic name 
of "Cavaliers." Among the Cavalieis were a large 
majority of the nobles, the wealthy land-owners, the 
teachers and students of the universities, the bishops 
The Cava- ^^^^^ clcrgy of the church, and all the higher 
liers. social elements of the country. From the time 

that these two parties of the Roundheads and the Cav- 
aliers were formed, it was vv^ar to the death between 

them. The struggle between the crown on the 
between the one hand, and the people through their rep- 
plrnTmtnt. rescntativcs in Parliament on the other, now 

began, not to end until the crown had become 
forever subject to the popular will. 

The Duke of Buckingham, who had been the favorite of 
James, became Charles's closest friend and adviser when 
he came to the throne. Parliament distrusted Bucking- 
ham, and in the first year of Charles's reign demand- 
ed his dismissal. To this the king would not consent. 
Parliament retorted by refusing the supplies for which 

Charles asked. Then he dissolved Parliament, 

Charles dis- 
solves Par- and boldly usurped the right to levy taxes of 
lamen . j^.^ ^^^^^^ accord. He commanded that duties 
should be paid on the wine and goods imported from 
abroad. He also tried to force loans from his wealthy 
subjects; and those who refused to lend him money 
were put into prison or compelled to join the army. At 
this time Charles was engaged in a war with France, to 
which he had been prompted by Buckingham ; and as he 
could not raise all the money he needed to carry it on by 



THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 237 

his illegal acts, he was forced to summon a new Par- 
liament. 

The new House of Commons, composed largely of Puri- 
tans, proved more firm and obdurate than that which had 
preceded it. It was willing to grant the king money, but 
only on condition that he "redressed the grievan- ^he new 
ces " of which it complained. In order to make Parliament 

i demands 

its demands clear and precise. Parliament drew up redress of 

1 1 11- ^^ r, • • f n • 1 ^ u grievances. 

and presented to the kmg a " Petition ot Right 
(1628). This petition declared that no subject should be 
deprived of his liberty without a trial, or without the privi- 
lege of the "habeas corpus." The habeas corpus The habeas 
was a legal process, by which a man who had been ^^^p^s. 
arrested could cause himself to be brought before a judge, 
and find out thereby the cause of his arrest. If the judge 
thought the cause a good one, the prisoner was re-commit- 
ted and held for trial ; but if there were no just reason for 
his arrest, the judge could set him at liberty. 

The second demand of the Petition of Right was that 
the king should levy no taxes without the consent of Par- 
liament. Of course this was only the assertion of an old 
rule, to which the sovereigns of England had long submit- 
ted. Charles, in order to get the money he needed, reluc- 
tantly signed the Petition, and agreed to abide charies 
by it. But he soon violated this promise, and ^^^"® *^® 

■' ' i ' Petition of 

went on as before. The war with France turned Right, 
out badly for the English ; and the king's favorite, Buck- 
ingham, after some inglorious military ventures, was assas- 
sinated (1628). Soon after, Charles made treaties of 
peace with France and Spain. The king now be- 
gan once more to raise taxes in the same way as violates the 
before ; and when Parliament protested against 



238 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

this violation of his promises, he dissolved it, seized some 
of its more outspoken members, and threw them into the 
Tower. The most eminent of these prisoners was Sir 
John Eliot, one of the best and wisest men of the time, 
who died in the Tower three years after. 

Charles now resolved to do without Parliament alto- 
gether. He was determined to rule as he pleased, with- 
out regard to the wishes of the people. In pursuing this 
rash course, he was supported and prompted by two very able 
Archbishop advisers. One of these was Laud, soon after made 
Laud. Archbishop of Canterbury. Taud was a man of 

rare learning, of great energy and vigor, haughty and wil- 
ful, and sternly intolerant. He wished to put the Church 
of England above the people, and to compel every one to 
conform to all its ceremonies as well as its doctrines. 
With the king's sanction. Laud proceeded to enforce 
submission to the church, and to punish bitterly all who 
refused to comply with his will. In doing this. Laud was 
aided by two tyrannical and secret courts, the High Com- 
mission, and the Star Chamber. These courts, at his 
instigation, condemned many Puritans to be fined, impris- 
oned, whipped, branded with hot irons, and even to have 
their ears cut off. 

The other adviser of the king was Thomas Wentworth, 
soon after created Earl of Strafford. Wentworth had at 
Thomas ^^^t bccu ou the sidc of Parliament in its oppo- 
wentworth. gifion to Charlcs, and had advocated the Petition 

Earl of _ ' 

Strafford, of Right. But hc had entered the king's coun- 
sels, and was now as resolved to secure to the crown as 
much power as possible, as he had once been to guard the 
rights of the people. Wentworth was imposing in personal 
appearance, strong-willed and passionate in character, 



THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 239 

overbearing in conduct, and fervidly eloquent as an orator. 
He conceived a great project for making the king an ab- 
solute ruler, and rendering him entirely independent of 
the will of his subjects. Wentvvorth went to wentworth / 
Yorkshire as p-overnor, and afterwards in the ^^ ssiemmeiy OiJt^' 

^ ' and Ire- 

same capacity to Ireland. In both places he land. 

ruled with iron severity, magnifying the king's power, and 
treating the people with contempt and cruelty. But Went- 
worth, with all his despotic intentions and severe acts, did 
not favor the entire abolition of Parliament. His purpose 
was that Parliament should still meet, but that, when it 
met, it should be entirely obedient to the king. 

For eleven years Charles, with the aid of Laud in the 
affairs of the church, and of Wentworth in the affairs of 
state, governed his kingdom without calling to- Eleven 
gether a Parliament. In this lons^ interval he years with- 

^■>" ^ ^ out a 

carried matters with a high hand, and did many Parliament, 
things which displeased and outraged his people. Charles's 
navy was weak, and he had no standing army. Pirates 
infested the seas, and there was a prospect of a war with 
France. In order to create an effective navy and army, 
money was needed ; and Charles had none. So he resorted 
to an ancient custom, which had not been made use of for 
a long period. This custom was for the king to call on 
the various sea-coast towns and the counties to supply him 
with ships, with which to protect his kingdom from invasion 
or piracy. Those towns or counties which could ghip- 
not provide ships were taxed for the money money, 
with which to pay for them. This tax was called " ship- 
money." 

Charles now levied this tax of ship-money (1637) with- 
out regard to the consent of the people. It was really to 



240 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

be used, not necessarily for building ships or raising 
troops, but in any way the king saw fit. This unjust and 
illegal tax was stoutly resisted in many parts of the country. 
Refusal of Jo^'^^^ Hampden, a courageous patriot, absolute- 
johnHamp-jy rcfuscd to pay it. He was brought to trial, 

den to pay •' '■ -^ * ' 

ship- and was condemned by a majority of the twelve 

money. ju^jges. Fivc of the judges, however, declared 
against his condemnation. His trial aroused great ex- 
citement throughout England, and greatly strengthened 
the party which opposed the king. Another act of Charles 
provoked a rebellion in Scotland. With the aid of Laud 
he tried to force the ceremonies and creed of the Church 
of England upon the Scots, who were for the most part 
Presbyterians. This was resisted in Edinburgh and other 
places by force of arms. Charles had no army strong 
enough to cope with the revolt ; neither did he, even with 
the forced ship-money, have funds with which to raise one. 
So it was that at last the king was compelled, quite 
against his will, to once more call together a Parliament 
Charles (1640). No sooucr had the Lords and Com- 
summons nious met, than they be2:an once more to de- 

a ne-w Par- ' •' c> 

liament. maud tlic rcdrcss of grievances, and the carrying 
out of the Petition of Right. Charles got angry, and 
called upon them to vote him some money ; and on their 
refusal, he abruptly dissolved Parliament. But his needs 
had become so great that he was obliged, in the 

The "Long ^ . 

pariia- samc year, to order a new election and summon 

yet another Parliament. This body, which met 
for the first time in November, 1640, has become famous 
in history as the " Long Parliamen-t." 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

THE CIVIL WAR. 

THE Long Parliament was largely made up of Pres- 
byterians and Puritans, who were opposed to the 
king's arbitrary conduct, and were determined to main- 
tain the liberties of the people. The Puritan leaders 
were resolute and able men. Chief among them were 
John Hampden, who had been tried for refusing to pay 
the ship-money, and John Pym, an earnest patriot and 
an eloquent orator. Instead of granting the king the 
money he sorely needed. Parliament set promptly to 
work to suppress the illegal powers he had assumed, 
and to get rid of the advisers who had' encouraged him 
in his tyrannical acts. The levying of ship-money by 
the kino^ was plainly denounced as unlawful. 

. Changes 

The secret courts of the High Commission and made by 
the Star Chamber, which had been the king's ^"^ i^'^s" • 
instruments in punishing his enemies, were done away 
with ; and it was declared that Parliament should meet, 
with or without the king's consent, at least once in three 
years. 

The Puritan leaders then caused Wentworth, Earl of 
Strafford, who had been the king's chief counsellor in the 
acts of which Parliament complained, to be impeached 
and tried for high treason. In vain did the king seek to 

241 



242 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

save his devoted minister. Strafford was found guilty, and 
Death of ^^'''is beheaded (1641). Then it came Laud's turn. 
Strafford, p^^^ ^^,^g j-,q|. jg^.g obnoxious to the Puritans than 
Strafford ; for he had persecuted their sect, and had tried 
to force all men to submit to the creed and forms of the 
Church of England. Laud suffered the same fate as Straf- 
ford, dying on the scaft'old with a calm and dignified cour- 
age "which seemed to prove his sincerity in what he had 
done. 

For a time Charles appeared to yield to the lessening of 
his powers by Parliament. An obstinate rebellion broke 
Rebellion in 0"^ in Ireland, as the result of long years of 
Ireland. oppressiou by the English, and especially of 
the cruel tyranny practised by Strafford. In order to 
put down the rebellion, the king needed the support of 
Parliament. He therefore chose for his new advisers 
Falkland Falkland and Hyde, who, while they were patri- 
and Hyde, ^j-g^ werc uot SO extrcmc and bitter as the Puri- 
tan leaders. But Charles soon became impatient of the 
wise counsels of these new ministers, and resolved to re- 
cover, if possible, his former authority. There was a 
party favorable to him in Parliament, and outside of Par- 
liament a large majority of the upper classes, and the bish- 
ops and clergy, were devoted to his cause. 

A paper called " the grand remonstrance " had been 

proposed in the House of Commons, and had given rise 

to an an2;ry debate. This paper recited the 

The grand * '' ^ ^ 

remon- dccds of the king of which the Puritans com- 
s lance. pj^ined, and the patriotic action of Parliament 
in opposing them ; and declared that the king must choose 
sjch advisers as had the confidence of the representa- 
tives of the people. The remonstrance was finally printed 



THE CIVIL WAR. 243 

and spread broadcast among the people. Then the in- 
censed king committed an act which was the signal for 
civil war. He sent his attorney-general to the House of 
Lords, to impeach five leading members of the House 
of Commons for high treason, and to demand their ar- 
rest. Among the five members were Pym and Hampden. 
The House of Commons, however, refused to give them 
up. 

The next day Charles himself, attended by a guard of 
five hundred cavaliers, made his appearance at the door of 

the House of Commons. P^nterins:, he looked 

•11-1 '^^^ ^^^s 

with lowering brow around the House for the and the five 

five members, and not perceiving them, asked °'®'^^®''^- 

the Speaker where they were. The Speaker replied that 

"he had not eyes to see, nor ears to hear, except as the 

House commanded him." The five members, indeed, had 

received warning of the king's intention, and had fled into 

London city. Charles retired in discomfiture. A day or 

two afterwards the five members were brought back by the 

river Thames to Parliament, attended by a great mass of 

citizens, who escorted them with a fleet of decorated boats, 

while trainbands paraded the streets in their honor. The 

members again took their seats in the House, and were 

enthusiastically welcomed by their colleagues. The king 

left London in ansrer and dismay, and was des- 

, . . , Charles 

tmed never to see his 'capital again, until he leaves Lon- 
returned to it a prisoner in the hands of his ^°'^' 
enemies (1642). 

Despairing of being able to either subdue or to make 
terms with Parliament by peaceful means, Charles resolved 
to have recourse to arms. He repaired to Nottingham, 
and appealed to his adherents throughout the kingdom 



244 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

to rally to his support. xA.t the same time Parliament 
promptly set about organizing an army, and appointed 
the Earl of Essex commander in-chief of the Parliamen- 
tary forces. The civil war thus begun lasted four years 
( 1 642-1 646). The first battle was foue^ht at 

Civil war. \ ^ ^ ^ 

Edgehill. It did not result decisively in favor of 
either side. The king's troops, being composed of "cav- 
aliers," were for the most part men of good birth, and 
were proud, chivalrous, and gay of temper. Those of 
the Parliament comprised mainly men from the middle 
and lower walks of life. 

It was soon after the opening of the conflict that 
Oliver Cromwell became conspicuous. He belonged to 
a good family of land-owners in the east of England, 
Oliver ^"^ ^^'^s a member of the Long Parliament. 

Cromwell. wq^^eQ ^hg ^Ya^- brokc out, he received a com- 
mission as captain in the patriot forces. He had not been 
bred as a soldier, but he soon showed remarkable mili- 
tary talents. He chose his men carefully, and organized 
them ; and they soon won the name of " Cromwell's 
Ironsides," by reason of their prowess and endurance in 
the field. Later, Cromwell was chosen as second in 
command of the Parliamentary army (1644) ; and he 
organized it into one of the best disciplined and most 
formidable forces that ever fought on English soil. He 
was deeply religious, and belonged to the sect of the " In- 
dependents," who believed that each congregation should 
manage its own affairs. The army was infused wath his 
sturdy religious spirit, and with his rough intolerance of 
other sects. They caught, too, his fervid patriotism and 
his ardor in the pursuit of liberty. The results of Crom- 
well's training and energy soon appeared in the ensuing 



THE CIVIL WAR. 245 

conflicts with the adherents of the king. The Scots had 
sent a force to join that of ParUament ; and in a great 
battle which was fought at Marston Moor, near York 
(1644), in which the impetuous Prince Rupert, 

1 1 11,1 Battle of 

the king s nephew, led the royal troops, and Crom- Marston 
well the combined army of the Scots and the ^°°''' 
Roundheads, a complete victory was won by the latter. 
Rupert and his cavaliers were driven in complete disorder 
from the field. After the battle of Marston Moor, Essex 
was succeeded as commander-in-chief of the Parliamentary 
army by a much abler general. Sir Thomas Fairfax; Crom- 
well still being second in command. The war went on 
more vigorously than ever. In less than a year after Mar- 
ston Moor, the final decisive battle was fought. Battle of 
Cromwell encountered Charles at Naseby (June, Naseby. 
1645), completely defeated him, and compelled him to fly 
for safety into Scotland. 

England had now no ruler except Parliament; and Par- 
liament was controlled by the Puritans and the Presbyte- 
rians, who formed political parties as well as religious sects. 
They made a compact, or what they called a " solemn 
league and covenant," in which they were joined by the 
Scottish Presbyterians, to suppress Catholicism and to put 
a stop to the services of the Church of England. Perse- 
cution of these sects followed, in which clero^y- 

^-^ Persecution 

men were turned out of their parishes, and Pres- of catholics 
byterian and Puritan ministers took their places, men.'^ "^^ ' 
Parliament also made many severe laws against 
popular recreations. The people were forbidden to ob- 
serve sacred holidays as they had been wont to do ; and 
the laws were especially stringent in prohibiting the keep- 
ing of Christmas Day. Many innocent amusements were 



246 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

in like manner suppressed, and the people were forced to 
lead a very dull and solemn existence. 

Meanwhile the king was as obstinate and self-willed as 
if he were still holding the royal power. The Scots, in 
Charles in whosc country hc had taken, refuge, tried to in- 
scotiand. c|,^,ce him to establish the Presbyterian as the 
State church in England. This he haughtily refused to do. 
The Scots then delivered him up as a prisoner to Par- 
hament, and he was confined at Hampton Court. What 
to do with the captive king became a serious question. 
The Puritans and Presbyterians in Parliament, despite 
their "solemn league and covenant," now utterly disagreed. 
The Puritans wished to bring Charles to the block; the 
Presbyterians shrank from so extreme a measure. There 
were more Presbyterians than Puritans in Parliament ; 
but the army, under Cromwell, was Puritan to the core, 
and clamored for Charles's death. A short and sharp 
method of bringing Parliament into agreement with the 
army was adopted. One day, an officer of Cromwell, 
Pride's named Colonel Pride, entered the House of 
Purge. Commons with a regiment of soldiers, and ex- 

pelled a hundred Presbyterian members from it ; and thus 
the Puritan members were turned into a majority. This 
violent act is known in history as " Pride's Purge." 

The Puritans promptly resolved that King Charles 
should be put on trial for his life. A special court, com- 
posed of one hundred and thirty-five judges, was created, 
and the unhappy king was arraigned before it in the an- 
Triaiofthe cicut Hall of Wcstminstcr, on a charge of high 
king. treason. The trial was hurried through. Charles 

persistently refused to defend himself. Throughout the 
ordeal, he bore himself with right kingly calmness and dig- 



THE CIVIL WAR. 24/ 

nit}'. He was declared guilty and sentenced to death, 
and was publicly beheaded on a scaffold erected in front 
of Whitehall Palace, where he had lived as king (Jan. 30, 
1649). He died bravely, exclaiming, just before he lay 
his head upon the block, " I go from a corruptible to an 
incorruptible crown, where no disturbance can charies-s 
take place." Charles was forty-eight years old "leath. 
at the time of his execution, and had reigned about twenty- 
four years. He was the only king of England who suffered 
death on the scaffold. 



CHAPTER XL. 

THE COMMONWEALTH. 

ALL classes of the English people were deeply moved 
by the death of Charles the First. His tyrannical 
acts were soon forgotten, and men recalled the better traits 
of his character. Many believed his trial and execution to 
have been grossly unjust. A reaction of feeling, hostile 
Royalist re- to tlic Puritans, and in favor of the royal house, 
action. quickly set in all over the country. A party was 
formed with the purpose of restoring young Prince Charles, 
the eldest son and heir of the " martyred " king, and this 
party grew stronger from day today. Meanwhile the Puri- 
tan Parliament continued to make changes in the govern- 
ment. It abolished the House of Lords, and set up what 
The Com- '^^'^s Called the " Commonwealth " in place of 
monweaith. ^]^g mouarchy. But the chief power in the coun- 
try lay in the veteran army, which had been so victorious 
everywhere ; and of the army Cromwell was the leading 
spirit. From the time of Charles's death, indeed, Crom- 
well was the real ruler of England. 

At the outset this grim Puritan soldier had to contend 
with grave disorders. The Irish, long and grievously op- 
pressed by their English masters, rose again in rebellion. 
Cromwell hastened with his veterans to put down the 
revolt. He speedily overcame the. Irish, and followed up 

248 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 249 

his triumph by wreaking upon them the most ruthless 
cruelties. He caused the crarrisons of Wex- 

^ _ _ CromweU's 

ford and Drogheda to be massacred, and it is cruelties in 
even said that many of the peaceable inhabi- 
tants were slaughtered by Cromwell's soldiers. Scarcely 
had Ireland been brought once more into submission to 
English rule, when another peril menaced CromwelTs 
power in the north. Large numbers of the Scots had 
espoused the cause of Prince Charles. The brave and 
chivalrous Marquis of Montrose headed a rising in the 
prince's favor, and paid the penalty of his devoted loy- 
alty on the scaffold. 

Prince Charles himself then landed in Scotland, and 
hosts of adherents, under valiant leaders, hastened to his 
standard. Once more Cromwell set out at the head of his 
sturdy Ironsides. He met Charles near Dunbar, 

. . . Prince 

and inflicted upon him a severe defeat (1650). chanes in 
Charles led his forces southward into England, 
hoping that the people would everywhere rise in his sup- 
port, and that he might recover his throne before Cromwell 
could overtake him. But Cromwell followed so prompt- 
ly that once more the hostile forces met at Worcester. 
A sanguinary battle resulted in another and Battle of 
overwhelming defeat of the prince, who was Worcester, 
forced to flee to escape being taken prisoner. After many 
adventures and perils, Charles succeeded in reaching the 
sea-coast, and so crossed the English Channel to France. 

Ciomwell's victories over the Irish and the adherents of 
Prince Charles made him more powerful than ever. The 
army was devoted to him ; and Parliament (the same Long 
Parliament which had been summoned by Charles the 
First), although it dreaded and distrusted Cromwell, was no 



250 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

longer strong enough in the respect of the country to op- 
cromweii's Posc him. Cromwcll himself treated Parliament 
power. ^^,m-^ disdain. He demanded that it should 
dissolve itself, and that a new Parliamentary election 
should take place. To this the Long Parliament refused 
to agree. Cromwell then adopted a rough and abrupt 
method of compelling a dissolution. He one day entered 
the House of Commons at the head of three 

Violent dis- 
solution of hundred soldiers, caused the Speaker to be 
ariamen. ^^j-^^gg^j ^^^^ q£ }-j-g q\]^[y^ gruf^y Ordered the 

mace, the symbol of the Speaker's authority, to be taken 
away ; and ended by turning the members out of the 
House, and locking the door upon them (1653). 

The government of England now became a virtual 
dictatorship. Cromwell, supported by the army, assumed 
supreme authority, with the title of " Lord Protector." In 
reality he exercised more than ro^al power. He sum- 
moned a new Parliament, which was called " Barebone's 
Parliament," from one of its leading members, a Puritan 
leather-dealer, named " l^raise-God Barebone." But the 
life of this Parliament was brief, as was that of the suc- 
ceeding Parliament, both of which Cromwell abruptly dis- 
solved because they tried to restrain him. Like Charles 
the First, the Protector now essayed to rule without any 
Parliament whatever ; and in many of his acts he was as 
despotic and overbearing as either of the Stuart kings had 
ever been. He levied taxes without the consent 

Despotic ™ . , . 

rule of of the people, put military officers in authority 
lomwe . .^^ niany places instead of the civil magistrates, 
and even imprisoned men whom he suspected to be his 
enemies, without warrant of law. 

Yet with all his tyrannical acts, Cromwell's rule con- 




CROMWELL BEFORE THE PARLIAMENT. — P 



\GE 250. 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 25 I 

ferred many benefits upon the country. It was strong and 
vigorous, and restored England to the high place among 
the nations which it had held under Elizabeth, 

Restora- 

and from which it had fallen in the reigns of the tionofsng- 
Stuarts. The English navy was rebuilt, and e^. ^°^' 
its prowess on the sea became once more ter- 
rible to England's enemies. In a war with Holland, the 
English fleet under Admiral Blake inflicted heavy defeats 
upon the Dutch. Cromwell also formed an alliance with 
France against Spain ; and in the course of the Acquisition 
war which followed, the port of Dunkirk, in FJan- of Dunkirk 

' '■ ' and Jamai- 

ders, and the island of Jamaica, in the West ca. 
Indies, fell into the possession of the English. 

Cromwell's rule at home, if despotic, was nevertheless 
on the whole just and wise. He was sincere in his desire 
to foster the well-being of his subjects. He encouraged 
education and trade, and did all he could to preserve or- 
der, and to see that justice was duly executed throughout 
his dominions. He was also as tolerant as the circum- 
stances of the time would permit. He allowed the Jews, 
who had been expelled from England in the time of Ed- 
ward the First, to return and settle in the coun- Return of 
try. He did not forbid the members of the t'^ejews. 
Church of England or the Catholics to worship in pri- 
vate in their own way. He chose his advisers and the 
generals of his army wisely, from among the ablest of his 
Puritan adherents. He also succeeded in suppressing the 
many plots which were formed to overturn the Protectorate 
and to restore the monarchy. 

Yet Cromwell was never thoroughly liked by the English 
people. He was so austere and overbearing, so wilful and 
quick of temper, that few men, perhaps no man, loved 



252 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

him. In the latter part of his rule he stood in constant 
fear of assassination. He wore a shirt of steel 

CromweU's 

unpopular- beneath his coat, and was always surrounded by 
^ ^' his guard whenever he went out of doors. His 

last days were imbittered by this dread of a violent death. 
Yet, after all, the stern old Protector died quietly in his 
bed. He was seized with an ague, and passed away in the 
fifty-ninth year of his age, having controlled the destinies 
of England for a period of nine years (1658). xA.s he lay 
Death of flying, he said, " I would like still to live, to 
Cromwell, g^rvc God and the people. But my work is 
done. Truly, God is good. He will not leave me. He 
will be with His people." 

Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son 
Richard. But Richard Cromwell was entirely different in 
character from his stern and iron-willed sire. He was 
good-natured, easy-going, fond of pleasure, indolent, and 
Richard without any capacity or taste for governing men. 
Cromwell From the time that he became Protector, the 

as protec- 
tor, thoughts and hopes of almost all Englishmen 

turned towards a restoration of the monarchy. The peo- 
ple had become weary of the severe and solemn rule of 
the Puritans. They longed to revive the recreations, 
amusements, and social customs which the Puritans had 
suppressed. Richard's government was brief and inglori- 
ous. The army was still in the ascendant, and its leaders 
summoned the old Long Parliament to come together 
once more. So much, however, was this body despised by 
the people, that they nicknamed it " the Rump." It met 
only to quarrel with the army, and to be speedily dissolved 
again. By that time all things were ripe for the return of 
a Stuart king. 



CHAPTER XLI. 

THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS. 

THE great mass of the English people had become 
heartily tired of Puritan rule ; and now the army, 
which had so long controlled the affairs of the coun- 
try, being no longer united under Cromwell's Discord in 
strong, resolute will, fell into discord, and di- *^® army, 
vided into two hostile sections. One of these sections de- 
sired to continue the Commonwealth in all its severity and 
rigidness. The other sympathized with the majority of the 
people in wishing to see the monarchy restored, and the 
heir of the Stuarts recalled and enthroned. The leading 
general belonging to the latter section was a shrewd, 
taciturn man, named George Monk. He was in George 
command of a considerable force in Scotland, ^°'^^- 
whence he resolved to march to London, and there restore 
the king. 

Monk's march was unresisted. Everywhere, as he ad- 
vanced toward the capital, the people flocked in his path- 
way, imploring him to dissolve the Long Parliament, to 
turn out the Puritans, and to recall the heir to the crown. 
He entered London amid great popular rejoicings, without 
having shed a drop of blood on the way. Par- The king is 
liament, after ordering a new election, dissolved ^®"* ^°''- 
itself. Monk declared openly for the king. A squadron 

253 



254 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

of gayly decked vessels was sent across the German 
Ocean to fetch back the exiled Stuart. Soon Charles 
the Second landed on English soil ; and, as he proceeded 
from the coast towards London, he was welcomed by every 
demonstration of hearty rejoicing. The bells were rung ; 
bonfires flamed from the hill-tops ; guns boomed forth a 
noisy greeting ; and multitudes hailed their new ruler with 
joyful acclamations. When he reached London, the con- 
duits flowed with wine, and oxen were roasted whole and 
distributed among the people in the streets. 

At the time of his restoration, Charles the Second was 

thirty-four years of age. He had spent most of his life 

abroad, so that his character was little known to 

Charles II. 

his subjects. His good-nature and love of pleas- 
ure, his lively ways and witty talk, his pleasant face and 
the easy charm of his manners, soon made him very pop- 
ular. Charles surrounded himself with a gay, reckless, 
merry-making court ; and the people, relieved of the long 
gloom of Puritan rule, plunged into all sorts of amuse- 
ments and dissipations. It seemed as if the restoration 
had effected a sudden and strikino: chans^e in the habits of 
Englishmen. The reaction from Puritanism appeared not 

only in the revival of o:ay customs and more 

Persecution •' ^ '^ •' 

ofthePuri- chccrful Hving, but also in the bitter persecution 
•^'^^" of those who still adhered to the Puritan faith. 

Charles had solemnly promised that when he came to 
his throne, all religious sects should be allowed to worship 
freely in their own way. But, like all the Stuarts, he vio- 
lated his pledges as easily as he made them. Puritan 
ministers were forbidden to preach, and were expelled 
from their parishes. Many of them were thrown into 
loathsome prisons. Even those persons who were only 




KING CHARLES 11. ENTERING LONDON. - Page 254. 



THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS. 255 

guilty of attending Puritan meetings, held in private 
holises, were imprisoned, sometimes for a long period. 
Among the Puritans who thus suffered for their faith was 
John Bunyan, the author of " Pilgrim's Progress," jonn Bun- 
which he wrote while the inmate of a jail. Se- y^"- 
vere laws were passed from time to time by Parliament 
against both the Puritans and the Catholics. These laws 
are known in history as the " test and corporation acts." 
Some of them remained in force until the earlv 

.-' The test 

part of the nineteenth century. By their provi- andcorpor- 
sions no one could hold office in a city or town, ^ ^°^ ^^'^ 
or in the government, or receive a commission in the 
army or the navy, or be a professor or a student in a 
university, without submitting to the forms of the Church 
of England. It was ut this time that all those who did not 
conform to the Church of England, except the Catholics, 
began to be called " Dissenters." This term included 
.Presbyterians, Puritans, and Independents. The king 
himself, while he was willing that the Dissenters "Dissent- 
should be persecuted, had a leaning towards the ®^®-" 
Catholics, and, as far as he could, prevented the laws from 
being pressed hardly upon them. 

Charles was unprincipled and untrustworthy ; but he 
was too prudent to act in direct opposition to Parliament, 
as his father had done before him. He loved to live a 
life of ease and pleasure, and did not wish to be 

^ ' The King 

driven from the throne, from which he had been and Pariia- 
so long excluded. He therefore yielded when ^^^ ' 
Parliament was firm, and got money from it as best he 
could to spend upon his recreations. In the fourth year 
of his reign (1664), he made war upon the Dutch. The 
result of the conflict was disastrous to the English. It 



256 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

ended by the sailing of the Dutch fleet up the river 
War with Medway, and the burning of some EngHsh war- 
the Dutch, gliips which Were moored at Chatham (1667). 
This disgrace for a while made the king unpopular. It 
was suspected that he had spent the money which Parlia- 
ment had voted for the building of men-of-war on the friv- 
olous pleasures of his court. Parliament examined the 
accounts of his expenditures, and put greater restrictions 
upon him in granting him supplies. 

While the war with the Dutch was going on, two terri- 
ble calamities visited London. The first of these was 
what was well called the "great plague" (1665). It swept 
The great through the city with desolating fury, carrying 
plague. Q^ hundreds every day. It lasted for six 
months ; and during that period it is believed to have de- 
stroyed one hundred thousand liuman lives. When the 
inmate of a house was stricken with the plague, a red 
cross was chalked on the door, and the house was shunned 
with shuddering fear. Within a year after the plague had 
ceased its awful ravages, a devastating fire broke out in 
the centre of London, and spread far and wide (1666). 
The great It cousumcd the entire area between the Tower 
^'■®- and the Strand, including St. Paul's Cathedral, 

the Royal Exchange, Guildhall, and other ancient and 
stately buildings, as well as a great number of shops and 
dwellings. The lire burned furiously for three days and 
nights, and at the end of that time more than two thirds 
of London was destroyed. It is said that four hundred 
streets, eighty-nine churches, and over thirteen hundred 
dwellings were laid waste. At least one good result fol- 
lowed this wide-spread conflagation. It swept away dis- 
tricts which had been full of filth, and had bred and 



THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS. 25/ 

nourished the plague. After the great fire, the plague 
entirely disappeared. 

The dissensions between the various religious sects col- 
ored all the important events of the reign of Charles the 
Second ; and an almost continuous struggle for the con- 
trol of affairs went on between the Catholics, Religious 
the Dissenters, and the members of the Church dissensions, 
of England. The great fire itself was attributed to the 
agency of the Catholics. When the lofty monument to 
commemorate the fire, which still stands in London, was 
built, an inscription was placed upon it to the effect that 
the calamity was due to Catholic plots ; and this inscrip- 
tion remained upon it until the present century. There is 
no proof, however, that the Catholics had anything to do 
with causing the conflagration. The people sus- The king 
pected Charles, and not without reason, of beinor suspected 

^ ' ' » of being a 

at heart a Catholic. His brother James, the catholic, 
next heir to the crown, was openly in communion with the 
Catholic church ; and it was believed that the royal bro- 
thers were planning to restore Catholicism as the State 
church of England. 

This suspicion was strengthened by the relations be- 
tween Charles and the French king, Louis the Fourteenth. 
Louis was by far the most powerful sovereign in Europe. 
During his reign, he had raised France to the first rank and 
power amon^ continental nations. France, too. 

Supremacy 

had taken the place of Spain as the champion of of France 
Catholicism and of the Pope in Europe. At ^^ ^"^^p®- 
first, Charles allied himself with the Protestant powers of 
Holland and Sweden against Louis, But after a time he 
fell from this alliance, joined Louis against the Protestant 
powers, sold Dunkirk to him, and even accepted large 



258 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

bribes of money from the French king. He again went 
to war with Holland, but Parliament refused to grant him 
money with which to carry it on, and he was forced to con- 
clude a peace (1674). 

In their fear of the Catholics, the Churchmen and Dis- 
senters sometimes joined their forces in opposition to the 
kinir. They attempted to exclude Tames, the 

Attempted & J ir j i 

exclusion king's brother and heir, from the succession to 
ames. ^j^^ thronc. But this was opposed by those who, 
though stanch Protestants, still believed that the throne 
belonged by divine right to the legitimate heir ; and al- 
though the conflict between those who wished to exclude 
James, and those who opposed his exclusion, lasted for a 
number of years, the attempt to deprive him of his birth- 
right failed. Charles, however, became alarmed at the 
strength of his opponents, and promised that he would 
break away from Louis, and make war upon France. 
Parliament granted him money for this purpose ; but when 
he had got the money he refused to fulfil his promise, and 
kept the army which he raised by the grant at home. He 
probably wished to use it to defend himself from his ene- 
mies, in case they should revolt from his rule. 

It was while these contentions between the religious 
sects were at their height, that a man named Titus Oates, 
The "Popish who was chicfly known as having changed his 
plot." religion several times, startled the country by 

declaring that he had discovered a Catholic plot to kill the 
king, burn London, massacre the Protestants, and seize 
upon the royal power (1678). This asserted conspiracy is 
known in history as the " Popish plot." No proof exists 
that any such project as that which Oates de- 
^ °^' scribed ever existed among the Catholics. But 



THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS. 259 

his Story was believed far and wide. It created intense 
agitation throufrhout the country, and the Protestants 
fell into a panic of fear, and a craving for revenge upon 
the accused sect. To add to the excitement, Sir Ed- 
mondsbury Godfrey, a Protestant magistrate, was at about 
the same time mysteriously murdered on the highway. 
Many Jesuits and other Catholics were put to death after 
hurried trials ; and the opponents of the Catholics in Par- 
liament, taking advantage of the anger of the people, 
carried through a law excluding Catholics from the House 
of Lords. 

The English were now divided into two political parties, 
the names of which, "Whig" and " Tory," still whigs and 
survive in PZnglish politics. The Whigs were '^°"^s. 
composed of the Dissenters, and of all others who most 
bitterly opposed the Catholics, and who wished to exclude 
James from the throne. The Tories were those who be- 
lieved in the divine right of kings, and who stood by 
James in spite of his being a Catholic. The Whigs, as 
has been said, failed to exclude James ; but they succeeded 
in compelling the king to assent to a law which has be- 
come famous as the Habeas Corpus Act. The right of 
every Englishman who was arrested to be brought to a 
speedy trial, which is essentially the right of the habeas 
corpus, had long been established. But the Stuart kings 
and their advisers had sometimes managed to evade this 
right, and had kept men in prison for long periods without 
a trial. The new law left them no loop-hole. It distinctly 
laid down that if a man were arrested for any The habeas 
crime, he should be brought before a judge «o^p^s law. 
for trial within a specified time, or else should be set free. 
Soon after the Whirrs had secured this jjreat law, their 



26o YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

influence in the country began to wane. A reaction in 
public feeling came. The people began to repent that 
they had too easily given credit to the story against 
the Catholics told by the infamous Oates ; and were 
shocked at the cruelties which, they now saw, had been 
visited upon large numbers of their innocent Catholic 
fellow-subjects. 



CHAPTER XLII. 

THE REVOLUTION. 

NOW that the sentiment of the people was turned In 
some sort in his favor, Charles showed the same des- 
potic tendencies which had marked his father and his grand- 
father. For four years he ruled his kingdom 

■' "^ Despotism 

without calling Parliament together; and during ofcuaries 
this period he did many things which he knew 
would not have been approved by the representatives of 
the people. He took away the charters which had been 
given to London and many other towns, and granted them 
other charters, which much restricted their municipal lib- 
erties, and curtailed the right of their citizens to vote for 
members of Parliament. Meanwhile his court became 
more and more reckless and profligate, and the king him- 
self set his courtiers a flagrant example of extravagance 
and immorality. The Whio^s were subjected to 

•''=>■> Persecu- 

harsh treatment, and often to tyranny. Charles tion of the 
favored the Catholics as much as he dared, and ^ ^^^' 
became more than ever subject to the influence of the 
French king. 

All these things greatly increased the bitterness of the 
Vv^higs towards the king, and they began to form conspira- 
cies for his overthrow. One of these conspiracies, called 
the " Rye House plot," was said to have for its object 

261 



262 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

the murder both of Charles and of his brother James. 
The Rye It \vas discovercd before it was ripe for execu- 
House plot. i[qyi^ and many leading Whigs were arrested as 
accomplices. Among the conspirators were a number of 
old Puritan soldiers, who had fought under Cromwell in 
the civil war. The Whig prisoners were put on trial ; and 
Lord William Russell and Algernon Sydney, two of the 
ablest, most upright, and most popular men in England, 
were found sfuilty of treason, and suffered death 

Death of i=> J 

Russeiiand on the scaffoM (1683). Most historians are 
^ ^^^' convinced, however, that, while Russell and Syd- 
ney were hostile to the king, and were anxious to expel 
him from the throne, they were not guilty of conspiring 
against his life. The Earl of Essex was found dead in 
his cell in the Tower ; Shaftesbury and Monmouth suc- 
ceeded in making their escape. Many other Whigs were 
banished from England. 

Charles the Second survived the Rye House plot two 
years, and during this period ruled with well-nigh absolute 
power. To the last he continued dissolute and lavish ; 
yet he never entirely forfeited the liking which his people 
had for him, on account of his gayety of spirit, wit, and 
Death of pleasant manners. He died of apoplexy, at the 
Charles II. ^„^ q^ fifty-ninc, having reigned for twenty-five 
years (1685). In his last hours Charles received the 
last sacrament of the Roman Catholic church, towards 
which he had always leaned. In spite of Charles's 
numerous unpopular acts, the people were sorry to hear 
of his death, for they dreaded the accession to royal 
power of his heir. Unlike Charles when he came to the 
throne, his brother James, who now became James the 
Second, had long been well known to the nation. He had 



THE REVOLUTION. 263 

been in command of the royal navy, and was a familiar 
figure at his brother's court. He was a risjid and 

^ ^ James II. 

outspoken Catholic, harsh and solemn in manner, 
obstinate, heartless, and narrow-minded in character. He, 
too, like all the Stuarts, had no sense of honor in the 
keeping of his promises. He was as little trustworthy as 
any king of his line. 

/ James began his reign by declaring that he wished to 
maintain the Church of England, and to establish reli- 
gious toleration among his people. But before he had had 
a chance to show his qualities as a ruler, a formidable re- 
bellion broke out against him in the western Monmouth-s 
counties. This rebellion was headed by the ^^^^^i^^^- 
young Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of Charles 
the Second. His standard was joined by many of the 
Whigs who had been banished, or had voluntarily left Eng- 
land towards the close of Charles's reign. The purpose 
of the rebellion was to drive James from the throne, and 
to place Monmouth upon it in his stead. A large number 
of the lower classes rallied to Monmouth's aid ; 

Defeat and. 

but scarcely any of the nobility responded to execution 
his summons. Ihe result was that, when tne mouth, 
royal troops met the insurgents at Sedgemoor, 
Monmouth was utterly defeated, his hastily-gathered force 
was scattered, and he himself was taken prisoner and soon 
after beheaded (1685). 

The events which followed Monmouth's overthrow form 
one of the darkest pages in English history. The revenge 
of the king was swift and appalling. He sent an infamous 
judge, Jeffreys, into the counties which had been the scene 
of the rebellion, to try those who had taken up arms 
in Monmouth's cause. Jeffreys went on his "bloody 



264 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

circuit," as it lias ever since been called, and on tiie 
The "bloody slightest evidence condemned men and women 
circuit." i^y ^|-,g clozen to bc hung, drawn and quartered, 
and embowelled. Within a month this bloodthirsty judge 
caused more than three hundred persons to be put to ter- 
rible deaths, besides condemning eight hundred more to 
foreign slavery. Meanwhile the royal troops were allowed 
the most cruel license among the terror-stricken population, 
and spread desolation, outrage, and death, far and wide 
among rural homes. 

The only Parliament summoned by James contained a 
large majority of Tories, who were his supporters. But 
at the very beginning he alienated from him many who 
A Tory Par- thought it their sacred duty to sustain the throne, 
liament. |-jy ^|-^g clemauds he made upon them. He asked 
Parliament to grant him money for creating a large stand- 
ing army, and to repeal the laws w^iich forbade the Catho- 
lics freedom of worship. Even the Tories refused to con- 
sent to these demands ; whereupon the king angrily dis- 
solved Parliament. James now resolved to accomplish 
his ends by means of the powers which, he claimed, still 
belonged to the crown. He established a standing army 
of thirty thousand soldiers; and, contrary to the law which 
excluded Catholics from all offices, military or civil, he 
commissioned Catholic officers to command his troops. 

Charles the First had asserted his right to raise ship- 
money without the consent of Parliament. James the 
Second now claimed that the crown had the power to 
"dispense with," or suspend in particular cases, 
pensing thc laws made by Parliament. The judges, who 
power. were his appointees and his creatures, sanctioned 
this claim. James then proceeded to exercise the dis- 



THE REVOLUTION. 265 

pensing power in spite of the protests of a large majority 
of his subjects. Not only did he continue to commission 
Catholics as army officers, but he caused a Catholic to be 
made Dean of Christ Church College, one of the most 
important of the Oxford colleges, and a Catholic to be 
chosen a Fellow of Magdalen College ; and appointed 
Catholics to be members of the royal council. James 
thus alienated from himself the support of large numbers 
of Tories, and the mass of the members of the Church of 
pLngland. He therefore tried to conciliate those Whigs 
who were Dissenters. The Dissenters still rested under 
the same ban as the Catholics. They too were forbidden 
by law to worship in their own way, and they too were ex- 
cluded from public office. 

In order to bring the Dissenters to his support, James 
issued what he called a " Declaration of Indulgence" 
(1687). This decree accorded liberty of worship 

^ ' ^ - ^ Declara- 

to both Dissenters and Catholics. The king tion of in- 
ordered the bishops and clergy of the Church of *^^^^®^*^®- 
England to read the Declaration from their altars. Seven 
of the bishops, among them the Archbishop of Canter- 
bury, and large numbers of the clergy throughout Eng- 
land, refused to obey the royal command. They asserted 
that the Declaration of Indulgence was contrary to the 
laws of the realm, and that in making it the king had ex- 
ceeded his powers. The bishops drew^ up a petition, giving 
the reasons of their refusal to read the Declaration, and 
presented it to Tames. This was the moment 

^ ■' Arrest of 

when James, by yielding, might have saved his the seven 
crown. But he did not think of yielding. He ^'^^°p^- 
ordered the seven bishops to be arrested, confined in the 
Tower, and brought to trial on the charge of libel (1688). 



266 YOUNG PEOP^LE's ENGLAND. 

Amid the most intense excitement both in London and 
throughout the country, the bishops were put on trial. As 
they proceeded to the court of the king's bench, great mul- 
titudes cheered and blessed them in the streets. After a 
brief trial, in which the judges, though the appointees of 
the king, were equally divided as to the justice of the 

charge of libel, the jury brought in a verdict of 
ofthebish- acquittal. As soon as this became known, the 

multitudes in the streets, and even some of the 
royal troops, went wild with joy. Dissenters joined 
Churchmen in their demonstrations of delight. The church 
bells rang merrily, and the streets were ablaze with bon- 
fires. At last the patience even of the Tories was ex- 
hausted. Many of them now joined the Whigs in a pro- 
ject to expel James from the throne. The birth of a son 
Hostility to ^o the king and queen, which occurred about the 
the king. i-jj-^-jg q£ ^j^g ^j.-^j q£ ^j^g bishops, strengthened the 

desire of the nation to get rid of the House of Stuart. 
It was feared that this son would be trained in the religion 
and despotic political faith of his father; and the people 
could not patiently look forward to a line of kings hke 
James the Second. 

The allied Whigs and Tories, who were now resolved that 

James should no longer reign, had not far to look for a 

champion of their cause, and a successor to the throne. 

W^illiam, Prince of Orano^e, was the leader of 

■William. ' ° ' 

Prince of the Protcstant party in Europe. He had fought 
Orange. bravcIy and steadily for Protestant and civil 
liberty on the continent. It happened, too, that he was 
nearly related to the royal house of England. He was a 
grandson of Charles the First, his mother having been 
Charles's daughter. He had married the Princess Mary, 



THE REVOLUTION. 267 

the elder daughter of James the Second. He was thus 
connected by a double tie with the English royal fam- 
ily. • To William of Orange, then, the English revolu- 
tionists sent word, imploring him to come over with his 
army, to expel James from the throne, and to himself as- 
sume the English crown. William responded wniiam 
promptly to the appeal. Within a few weeks he ^Je^^^^l^gj^ 
had landed on the coast of Devonshire with a coast. 
a well-disciplined force of fifteen thousand Dutch soldiers, 
and without delay marched on London (November, 1688). 
The attempt of James to oppose William's advance was 
feeble and short-lived. Day by day his adherents, and 
even his officers and soldiers, deserted him. He thought 
of confronting William at Salisbury ; but was forced to 
turn back without a conflict. His younger james de- 
dausfhter, Anne, instiiiated bv one of James's ^^''ted by 

*= ' ' o .J j^js adhe- 

most trusted generals, John Churchill (afterwards rents, 
famous as the great Duke of Marlborough), left the unhappy 
monarch and went over to Jjis enemies. James saw that 
any further attempt to retain his crown w^ould be useless. 
He managed to escape from London with his queen and 
infant son, and took refuge in the dominions of his friend, 
the king of France. William entered the capital without 
havino^ struck a blow or havino^ fouo;ht a battle, and 

* fc> O 9 William is 

was welcomed on every side as the future ruler accepted 
of the English nation. This sudden and peace- ^^ ^'^^' 
ful change of dynasty, and the results it brought about in 
the English monarchy, are known in history as " the 
Great Revolution." 



T 



CHAPTER XLIII. 

PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 

HE reigns of the four Stuart kings very nearly cov- 
ered tiie span of the seventeenth century. James 
the First came to the throne in 1603, and James 

The period _ 

of the stu- the Second was deposed in 1688. The progress 
ings. ^^ ^j^^ English people during this period was re- 
markable in many ways. They made great strides towards 
political liberty, and some progress, at least, in religious 
toleration. The Catholics were still excluded from the 
right to freely worship, and suffered, as they were yet long 
to suffer, under many grievous disabilities ; but the other 
sects, towards the close of the century, were relieved of 
their most oppressive burdens. At the beginning of the 
century, the crown was almost absolute ; at its end. Parlia- 
ment had obtained crreater political power than 

1 icreased ° ^ ' 

power of the crown. There had been progress and reaction 

Parliament. . , n' ^ i i • 11 

m the conflict between the kmgs and the repre- 
sentatives of the nation ; but, on the whole, the gain was 
decidedly in favor of the latter. 

During the period of the Stuarts, also, the English peo- 
ple made very marked advances in the arts and sciences, 
Progress in i" litcraturc, iu manufactures and commerce, 
the arts. ^j^^| jj^ ^j^q material comforts and conveniences 
of living. In the arts, Kneller and Lely produced paint- 

268 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 269 

ings by which they are still honored and remembered ; 
and Sir Christopher Wren reared the stately pile of the 
modern St. Paul's Cathedral. Inigo Jones left monu- 
ments as an architect, only less noble and stately than 
those of Wren himself. Literature flourished under the 
impulse given by the splendid circle of Elizabethan au- 
thors. Milton, the poet of the Puritan era, wrote " Para 
dise Lost;" and Dryden, the poet of the Res- 
toration, founded a new school of versification, the seven- 
Among the other noted writers of the century J^t-y!^^ ''^''" 
were Herrick, Samuel Butler, the author of 
" Hudibras," Beaumont and Fletcher, the dramatists, Eve- 
lyn and Pepys, the authors of famous diaries, and Claren- 
don and Burnet, historians of the times in which they 
lived. The power of the press had steadily increased 
throughout the century, despite the restrictions of censor- 
ship within which the Stuarts confined it. 

The seventeenth century was an era of varied intel- 
lectual activity in research, discussion, and invention. 
During its progress. Sir Isaac Newton discovered the great 
law of gravitation, and Harvey proved the circulation of 
the blood. An important though at the time little heeded 
event in the promotion of science was the founda- T^e Royai 
tion of the Royal Society (16^^). This famous s°^^^*y- 
body originated in a gathering of educated and thoughtful 
young men, who were believers in the philosophy of Lord 
Bacon, and who proposed to promote "the improvement 
of natural knowledge." They studied and made experi- 
ments in anatomy, astronomy, and chemistry, and were 
aided by the use of the newly discovered telescope and 
microscope. In time, this society became the nucleus of 
the philosophical thought and activity of England. As- 



2/0 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

tronomy was, moreover, adv^anced by the establishment of 
Greenwich the obscrvatory of Greenwich, in the reign of 
observatory. ^1-jg second Charlcs (1676). 

In commerce and manufactures, England rose, during 
the seventeenth century, to be one of the leading nations 
in the world. When the century closed, a wide variety of 
manufactories were flourishing in different parts of the 
country. The fleece grown in Wiltshire was woven into 
woollen fabrics in the rural homes of the western counties. 
Birmino-ham was alreadv makins; knives, nails, bridle-bits, 
English in- ^^'^^^ agricultural implements from the iron pro- 
dustries. curcd in the forest of Dean. Manchester was 
turning out cotton goods. Staffordshire was producing 
pottery from its native clay. Coal mines were being 
worked on the banks of the Tyne, and tin and lead mines 
in western England. Gloucester was finishing fine cloths 
in gay and brilliant hues, which vied with those produced 
by southern Europe. 

Warrington was making linen ; Derby was thriving upon 
the manufacture of silk ; bone-lace was a profitable industry 
among the young women in the west and south ; Sheffield 
was turning out cutlery; Norwich was spinning 
tions of the yam ; and glass was a growing industry in the mid- 
land districts. The people of Cornwall and adjoin- 
ing counties pursued a great variety of occupations. They 
were farmers and gardeners, miners and operatives, shep- 
herds and weavers, fishermen and sailors. London, Bris- 
tol, and Hull had become busy commercial ports, trading 
with France, Spain, Holland, the Indies, and North 
shipbuiid- America ; but as yet Liverpool had no docks, 
uSut^"^ nor even a harbor. Shipbuilding was active at 
houses. Plymouth and Portsmouth ; and in the last years 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 2/1 

of the century the first Eddystone light-house was com- 
pleted, and shed its friendly warning rays out over the 
tempestuous English Channel. The Hudson Bay Com- 
pany, for dealing in furs and minerals, was chartered 
(1670). 

The recreations and pastimes of the people had multi- 
plied as years went on. Horse-racing had come into 
vogue, and Newmarket had become the annual scene of a 
boisterous racing carnival. Bull-baiting and bear-baiting, 
cock-fighting and Maypole festivities, had been popular 
revived when Charles the Second returned to set ^^"""^^ ^'^^ 

recrea- 

the example of habitual pleasure-making to his <^^°^s- 
subjects. It became the fashion to resort to Bath as a 
watering-place. The theatre had become an established 
place of entertainment, and theatres rapidly increased in 
number in the later years of the Stuart era. Tobacco and 
potatoes began to be extensively cultivated and used in 
the reign of the first James. Coaches came into frequent 
use early in the century, and brick was employed for the 
first time in the building of houses. 

The social condition, as well as the general intelligence 
of the English people, greatly improved amid the political 
convulsions of the seventeenth century. At the revolution 
(1688), the population of England was estimated 

r r r~ "^^^ popu- 

at not tar from five and a half millions. Divided lation of 
into various occupations, this population con- ^''^^^''**- 
tained 1,300,000 cottagers or tillers of land, 750,000 far- 
mers, 940,000 free-holders of land, 1,275,000 laborers and 
servants, 220,000 people of rank or official station, 52,000 
clergymen, 70,000 lawyers, 64,000 merchants, 235,000 re- 
tail shopkeepers, 240,000 artisans, and 75,000 persons 
devoted to the liberal arts and sciences. The combined 



2/2 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

army and navy of the kingdom comprised 256,000 men. 
Of the population, nearly three fourths lived in the coun- 
Towu and ^O'^ ^^^^ ^"^Y ^^^ fourth in the cities and towns, 
country. London had a population estimated at a little 
ovtr half a million. The food and clothing and general 
style of living of the upper classes had become much 
more luxurious. The nobility wore finer clothes and 
more elaborate costumes, had larger retinues of servants 
and ijiore numerous residences, and spread for their guests 
a more various and more daintily served table. 

The condition of the lovv^er classes had also somewhat 

improved. But the wages of the laboring classes were 

verv low, the averao"e wasres of the as^ricultural 

Condition " ' . f , r 

of the low- laborer bemg at the close of the seventeenth 
er classes. ,.gj^^,^y f^^g shilHngs 3. wcck. Whcatcn bread 
was still too dear for him. He lived upon the coarsest 
fare, and it was rarely that he could afford his family 
a taste of meat. It is said that one half of the labor- 
ing people did not have any meat from one year's end 
to the other. They could never afford tea or sugar. 
They lived in cottages which were little better than hovels, 
with almost no furniture whatever, wherein the family lived 
in common with their pigs, poultry, and dogs. Still the 
English peasant was not without enjoyment in life. He 
was fond of sturdy games, and went to the fairs, and al- 
though he worked hard, he worked cheerfully and lustily. 
The farmers were slow to adopt new inventions ; and the 
agricultural implements of 1700 were but little better 
than those which had been in use a century before. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 

SOON after William of Orange, or William the Third, 
had taken possession of the government, a new Parlia- 
ment was summoned. But this Parliament was brought 
together, not, as always before, by the sovereign, but by 
those who had brought about the revolution. It was there- 
fore called, at first, a " convention," though it afterward 
took upon itself the duties and the name of a regular Par- 
liament. This body had a task to perform, harder, per- 
haps, than ever fell to an English Parliament. It had to 
fully establish a new dynasty on the throne, to 

■' ... . Settlement 

settle permanently in the constitution the liber- of the con- 
ties which the English people were to enjoy in ^ ^ ^ ^'^^' 
the future, and secure, for all time, the supremacy of the 
authority of Parliament over that of the crown. The most 
important result of the Great Revolution, indeed, was to 
make the sovereign dependent on the representatives of 
the people, and to substitute their will in all great matters 
of state for his. From that time, first the Lords and Com- 
mons, and then the Commons alone, became the real 
ruling power in the kingdom. 

The first act of the new Parliament was to choose and 
proclaim William and Mary joint king and queen of Great 
Britain and Ireland (February, 1689). This was the only 

^-73 



2/4 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

time that England was governed by two sovereigns, hold- 
injr equal authority the one with the other. But 

William and o ^ ^ 

Mary pro- Mary, though legally as much a ruler as her hus- 
c aime . ]Q^y^([^ fgok but little part in the affairs of state. 
The government was really carried on by her wise and able 
consort. It had now been settled that the kings of Eng- 
land had no " divine right " to rule ; that an obnoxious 
king might be got rid of ; that the power to change the 
dynasty, and elect a new king, rested in Parliament ; and 
that, as a consequence, since the king's only claim to the 
throne was Parliamentary election, he must do as Parlia- 
ment chose, and not as he himself wished. Parliament 
Liberties went on to secure the liberties which, although 
secured. niauy of them existed before, had been violated 
by the Stuarts, and which were confirmed and settled by 
the revolution. This was done by a formal declaration of 
'liberties by the two Houses, called the " Declaration of 
Rights ; " the leading points in which were' afterward em- 
bodied in a law known as the " Bill of Rights." 

The main features of the reforms thus adopted w^ere as 

follows. It was laid down that the sovereign could not 

raise taxes in any way whatever, or keep a standing army, 

without the consent of the Lords and Commons ; 

Restric- 
tions of roy- that a certain fixed sum should be paid to the 

power. i>i,-)g annually for the expenses of the state ; that 
every sum voted should be applied to the purpose speci- 
fied by the vote, and that the expenditure on the army 
and navy should every year be reported to the House of 
Commons ; that the judges, instead of being appointed and 
removed at will by the king, should hold their seats for 
life or during good behavior ; that no subject should be 
kept a prisoner by the sole order of the king, but that 



WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 2/5 

everyone should have the right to a speedy trial ; that the 
press should no longer be compelled to procure a license 
from the king's censor, but should thenceforward be un- 
restricted and free ; that all bills relating to money should 
be first considered and passed by the House of Commons, 
so that if the king or Lords did not do as the Commons 
approved, the latter might withhold the supplies ; that the 
king's subjects might freely petition him to re- Right of pe- 
dress grievances ; that the debates of Parliament *^ti°^- 
should be free from any interposition of the king; and 
that the king could make no law, and "dispense" with no 
law, without the assent of Parliament. 

In this manner the authority of the crown was ef- 
fectually bound and subjected to the superior will of the 
two Houses. But these were not all the important acts of 
the first session of the first Parliament of William and 
Mary. It was settled by law that no person should sit on 
the English throne who was not a Protestant. 

^ The Protes- 

This was done lest the Catholic Stuarts should tant suc- 



cession. 



seek to return, which they actually did. An Act 
of Toleration was passed, by which the Dissenters were 
permitted to have their places of worship, and to hold their 
religious services as they pleased. But the Catholics were 
not only still forbidden this right, but were subjected to 
many other harsh restrictions. The Dissenters were still 
prevented by the Test Act, which continued in operation, 
from holding any military or civil office. 

All clergymen, whether Dissenters or of the Church of 
England, were required to take the oath of alle- Division in 
giance to William and Alary. This requirement tbe church, 
resulted in a serious division in the Church of England 
itself. Some of the bishops, and many of the clergy, 



2'j6 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

were unwilling to acknowledge William as king. They 
adhered to their old doctrine that the king had a divine 
right to rule, and could not for any cause be removed from 
the throne; and that therefore the expelled James was still 
the rightful sovereign. Strange to say, several of the seven 
bishops whom James had imprisoned in the Tower, took 
this ground. They and four hundred of the clergy re- 
fused to take the oath of allegiance to William, and hence 
were called " non-jurors." They were excluded 

Non-jurors. ^ 

from their sees and parishes, and tried to set up 
a separate church of their own. But after a feeble exist- 
ence of about a century, this "non-juring" church died out. 
William the Third is described by Bishop Burnet as a 
man " with a thin and weak body. He was always asth- 
matical ; and the dregs of the small-pox falling on his 
Appearance huigs, he had a coustaut deep cough." He was 
and traits cadavcrous iu appearance, and wholly unattrac- 

of W^illiam _ ^ ^ ' ^ J 

and Mary, tivc iu persou. His disposltiou was morose, 
and he had cold, solemn, and irritable manners. Yet he 
was the master of seven languages, had a wonderful mem- 
ory, was ardent and valiant in battle, and wise, prudent, 
and far-seeing in council. He was, moreover, patient in 
the pursuit of his ends, and had a remarkable power of 
self-control which stood him in good stead throughout his 
uneasy reign. His queen, Mary, presented a marked con- 
trast to him in her traits and manners. She was cheerful, 
amiable, pious, charitable, and her pleasant ways soon at- 
tracted and held the love of her subjects. Her husband 
was disliked in England from the first ; and it was as 
much Mary's charms of character, as William's sincerity 
and executive ability, that reconciled the English to the 
new dynasty. 



WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 2// 

William did not like the English any more than they 
liked him. He often sighed for the flat expanses of his 
native Holland ; and more than once, harassed by the per- 
plexities of his government, and annoyed by the wiiuam's 
conduct of his ministers, he threatened to abdi- discontent, 
cate his crown and return to his continental home. His 
troubles, indeed, began before he had sat a year on the 
throne. He did not secure the throne without bitter oppo- 
sition in several quarters. The exiled king James was re- 
solved not to rest quidtly under his expulsion. Louis the 
Fourteenth of France, who recognized in the new king of 
England his deadliest foe and rival, as well as the foremost 
champion of the Protestant cause in Europe, en- Enmity of 
couraged and helped James in his designs to re- ^=^"1^. 
cover the throne. It was the chief object of William's 
life, on the other hand, to humble, and if possible to crush, 
the haughty and intolerant monarch who had sought to de- 
prive Holland of her liberties. The chief reason which 
induced William to accept the English crown, and when he 
had assumed it not to resign it, was his purpose to employ 
the power of England to overcome the Frencn king. 

Within a month after William and Mary had been pro- 
claimed king and queen, the exiled James, encouraged by 
Louis, landed on the shores of Ireland (March, 

^ _ James in- 

1689). An overwhelming majority of the Irish vades ire- 
people, then as now, were Roman Catholics. 
They adhered to the cause of James. They had long 
been grievously oppressed by their English masters. They 
did not look for any mercy or favor from William or from 
the English. Only the small minority of English settlers 
in Ireland recognized the new king. These hastened from 
the country into the fortified towns. James arrived in 



2/8 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

Dublin, summoned the Irish Parhament, gathered together 
such forces as he could, and laid siege to Londonderry, 
where the adherents of William sturdily held out. This 
siege is one of the most memorable in history. It lasted 
three months. Finally, just as the devoted garrison were 
about to yield to starvation, succor came from England. 
The siege was raised, and the Irish forces were compelled 
to retire. The Irish Parliament met, declared its adhe- 
sion to James, and passed several severe laws against the 
English who lived in Ireland. 

In spite of the failure of James at Londonderry, his 
hold upon Ireland seemed so formidable that William 
William in placcd himsclf at the head of thirty thousand 
Ireland. men, and crossed the Irish Channel. James, 
with a force of about the same number, a part of which 
consisted of French soldiers sent over by Louis to help 
him, took up his position on the banks of the river Boyne. 
Here the famous battle of the Boyne took place, in which 
James was utterly defeated, and as a result of which he 
retired to France (July, 1690). William marched to Lim- 
erick, took that town in spite of an obstinate resistance, 
and then returned to England. His generals finished the 
work he had so promptly begun. Athlone was captured 
Defeat of ^Y ^^^^ English, and the Irish were again defeat- 
the Irish. g(-| ^|- Aughrim. A treaty of peace was made, in 
which William accorded to the Irish liberty of worship, 
and the right to keep their lands. 

This treaty, however, was soon shamelessly violated by 
the victors. Once more Ireland felt the rigors 

Penal laws. 

of foreign tyranny. The first penal laws were 
passed, which excluded the Irish Catholics from the army, 
the magistracv, all civil office, and the university ; which 




KING WILLIAM AT IllE BATTLE OF THE BOYNE. — Page 278. 



WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 2/9 

deprived them of the right to vote, or to be members of 
Parhament, or to marry Protestants, or to purchase land 
or inherit it from Protestants ; which forbade all foreign 
priests to come to Ireland, and prohibited Catholics from 
keeping schools, or sending their children to schools of 
their sect in foreign lands. The domains of the Irish 
were in many cases violently confiscated. Bishops and 
monks were banished from Ireland, and forbidden to re- 
turn on pain of death. Ireland, indeed, rested under an 
oppression as bitter and hopeless as that which she had 
suffered in the time of Cromwell. 



CHAPTER XLV. 

QUEEN ANNE. 

WHILE the conflict was going on in Ireland, William 
had plunged into a war with France, and had also 
been called upon to put down an obstinate revolt in Scot- 
war with h^^nd. The war with France was caused by the 
France. open aid givcu to James by the French king. It 
lasted eight years (1689-1697), and began by an attempted 
invasion of England by the French. The soldiers of Louis 
succeeded in landing on the English coast, but were soon 
compelled by the uprising of the country to recross the 
Channel. In the struggle which followed, England was in 
alliance with Germany, Spain, and Savoy. Nevertheless, 
the English arms did not achieve brilliant success. The 
English fleet was defeated by that of the French at Beachy 
Head, but succeeded in repelling a second attempted in- 
vasion of England two years afterwards (1692). The Eng- 
lish took Mons and Namur ; but not only lost them again, 
but were severely defeated by the French general, Luxem- 
bourg, at Steinkirk, and again at Landen. Then the tide 
of war turned. William retook Namur, and had some 
Peace of Other succcsscs. At last a temporary peace was 
Byswick. concluded at Ryswick (1697). Louis recognized 
William as King of England, and agreed to cease from 
giving aid and comfort to the exiled James. 

280 



QUEEN ANNE. 28 1 

A large majority of the Scots had accepted William as 
king of Scotland as soon as he had been proclaimed king 
of England. Scotland was still a kingdom by g^ate of 
itself. Its only relation to England was that un- Scotland, 
der the Stuarts the same king was the legitimate ruler of 
both countries. The Scots, therefore, chose William as 
their king by the election of their Parliament, just as the 
English had chosen him. The later Stuart kings had griev- 
ously oppressed the Scots. James the Second, before he 
came to the throne, had been the governor of Scotland, 
and had oppressed the Presbyterians and other Dissenters 
without mercy. So the Scots, for the most part, welcomed 
the accession of a king who was himself a Presbyterian, 
and who would be likely to treat them fairly, and allow them 
to worship in their own way. Still there was a courageous 
party of Scots, by no means contemptible in either rank or 
numbers, who refused to accept William as their king, and 
who promptly raised the standard of revolt. They Scottish 
were mostly Highland chieftains, who believed in ^avoit. 
the right of James to rule ; and at their head was the im- 
petuous Graham of Claverhouse, Lord Dundee. 

The struggle between these Scottish insurgents and 
William's adherents was bitter and bloody, and lasted 
about a year. Dundee put himself at the head of two 
thousand hardy Highlanders, and encountered and de- 
feated a force twice as large as his own in the rugged pass 
of Killiecrankie (July, 1689). But this was Dundee's only 
important triumph. The Highlanders in vain sought to 
capture Dunkeld by assault, and were finally surprised and 
decisively defeated at Cromdale. A terrible retribution 
awaited at least one of the clans, Clan MacDonald of 
Glencoe, for its resistance to William. A company of sol- 



252 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

diers, apparently with friendly intentions, entered the val- 
ley of Glencoe, where this clan dwelt ; and in the early 
Massacre of •'•"'o^^^i^S f ^11 upon the unsuspecting people and 
Glencoe. savagcly massacred them. Those who escaped 
fled into the mountains, where some of them froze and 
starved to death. Although this cruel deed was not done 
by William's orders, he failed to punish the assassins as 
they deserved. 

Not only was William's reign disturbed by these strug- 
gles with the Irish, the French, and the Scots, but it was 
also a period of much political commotion at home. Par- 
liament felt and firmly exercised the powers which had 
been confirmed to it by the Declaration and Bill of Rights. 
It granted William an annual sum of ;^i, 100,000, and 
Fresh re- votcd funds for his wars ; but it hedged these 
forms. grants about with careful restrictions. It passed 

a law limiting the duration of Parliaments to three years, 
and a law regulating cases of treason, which secured to 
the subject the right to have counsel, and ensured him a 
fair trial. At one time it restricted William's standing 
army to seven thousand men ; and compelled him to send 
back to Holland the Dutch soldiers, whom he had brought 
over to act as his body-guard. It also forced him to re- 
store some Irish estates, which he had given to his Dutch 
favorites, to their former owners. 

Other misfortunes befell the upright but unhappy king. 

His queen, Mary, died (1694), and left him not only a 

widower, but childless. Plots were discovered 

Deatli of / 

Queen Ma- for taking his life. The struggles of the con- 
^^' tending parties, the Tories and the Whigs, per- 

plexed and worried him. It was in William's reign that 
the system of party government which still Exists in Eng- 



QUEEN ANNE. 283 

land took its rise, and that what is called the "cabinet" 
assumed definite shape. At first the king chose his min- 
isters from both of the political parties ; but after a time 
he came to choose them from one party exclusively. Thus 
those ministers who held the highest offices, such as Lord 
Chancellor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and so on, 
formed an inner and secret council within the ministry, 
and were called the " cabinet." Of course the 

1 r I 1 1- Thecabinet. 

cabu:iet was always composed or the leadmg 
men of the party in power. It was the majority of the 
House of Commons, moreover, and not the king, who de- 
cided which party should hold the power, and supply the 
cabinet. 

Since William had no children, it became necessary for 
Parliament to decide upon a new line of succession to 
the throne. The next heir was the Princess Anne, the 
second daughter of James the Second, who, unlike her 
father, was a Protestant. Anne was married to the Prince 
of Denmark ; but her only child had recently died. 
After Anne, therefore, there was no recognized heir to the 
English crown. In the year before William's death, Par- 
liament passed a law which was called " The ^ct of suc- 
Act of Succession." By this law, the succession cession, 
to the crown was settled upon the Electress Sophia of 
Hanover, and her heirs. Sophia was a grand-daughter 
of James the First. She was therefore a Stuart by de- 
scent; and she was a Protestant — the Protestant who 
stood nearest in kinship to the throne. The act of settle- 
ment also provided that no foreigner should be entitled 
to a seat in Parliament ; that the king should not make 
war on behalf of any other nation without the consent of 
the two Houses ; and that he should not pardon any offi- 



284 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

cial in order to protect him from impeachment. Soon 
after this law was passed, the dethroned king, James the 
Death of Sccond, died in France (1701), and the French 
James. king at once recognized James's son, James Ed- 
ward, as the rightful sovereign of England. 

William saw in this act of Louis his long wished-for op- 
portunity. The English people were deeply incensed, and 
became as eager for war with France as the king himself. 
Preparations ^^^ilJi^^^'' immediately began his preparations for 
for war. ^ great struggle with his old enemy. But he 
was destined not to live to witness its opening. He was 
riding one day in the park at Hampton Court, when his 
horse stumbled and threw him violently to the ground. 
The king's injuries from this fall proved fatal. He lin- 
gered painfully for several weeks, and then died, at the 
age of fifty-two, having reigned a little more than thirteen 
years (1702). 

With Qireen Anne, whose accession to the throne was 
warmly welcomed by nearly all classes of the English 
Accession pcoplc, a rcigu began which was remarkably bril- 
of Anne. Yi^ut both ou the field of war and in English lit- 
.erature. The English had never liked William's morose 
temper and foreign w'ays. In Anne they saw a native 
Englishwoman, in whose veins ran the blood of the royal 
house. They knew her to be a devoted member of the 
national church, and they believed that she had at heart 
the interests of the people. She was dull, heavy, and un- 
attractive, but kind-hearted and honest, and was called 
by her subjects " the good Queen Anne." Her husband 
was an insignificant person, who took no part in the affairs 
of state. But the queen had two intimate friends, whose 
influence over her, and whose share in controllina^ the 




THE ACCESSIOX OF (^t^'KKX AX \K.- Page 2^:4. 



QUEEN ANNE. 285 

destuiies of England, form a memorable feature in the 
history of her reign. These two friends were John Chur- 
chill, afterward famous as the great Duke of Marlborough, 
and Sarah Churchill, his wife. 

John Churchill came of a good family in Southern Eng- 
land, and was bred as a soldier. In his early j^-^ chur- 
vears, he took part in the wars with the Moors, ^'^i"- ^^^^ 

^ \ ^ , of Marlbor- 

and with the. Dutch, and was an officer in the ough. 
king's army at the battle of Sedgmoor. He became a 
favorite of James the Second, but basely betrayed his 
royal benefactor, and carried his sword over to the side of 
William of Orange ; persuading James's daughter, Anne, 
to also abandon her father's cause. Churchill married 
Sarah Jennings, a brilliant, beautiful, and high-tempered 
maid of honor in attendance on Anne ; and from the time 
of the revolution, the influence of this pair over Anne was 
long supreme. King William had created Churchill an 
earl ; and shortly after her accession, Anne conferred on 
him the title of Duke of Marlborough. Churchill w^as 
covetous and unprincipled, but kind-hearted, and possessed 
a singular influence over men. As a soldier, he was brave, 
full of resources, and wonderful in tact and skill. It was 
this extraordinary man who was now chosen to take the 
chief command of the English army, in the mighty strug- 
gle in which it was about to engage with the legions of 
France. 



CHAPTER XLVI. 

THE WAR WITH FRANCE. 

THE long war which broke out between England and 
France in tiie first year of Queen Anne's reign is usu- 
ally called "The War of the Spanish Succession." It 
The war of camc about from two main causes. As has been 
the Spanish g^^^^ Louis the Fourteenth, on the death of the 

succes- 
sion, exiled James the Second, had openly recognized 

James's son, James Edward, as the rightful king of Eng- 
land ; and this had aroused the indignation of the English. 
The other cause of the war was the attempt of France to 
place a French prince on the Spanish throne, and unite 
the destinies of the two countries. Two years before 
(1700), Charles the Second, king of Spain, had died, leav- 
ing no direct heir. He had left his dominions by his will 
to Philip, duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis the Four- 
teenth. But two other claimants to the Spanish throne 
appeared, in the persons of Joseph of Bavaria and the 
Emperor Leopold of Germany. All three of these prin- 
ces derived their claim from their descent from Philip the 
Third of Spain. 

Of course King William could not consent that the hands 
of his French enemy should be strengthened by the acqui- 
sition of the Spanish realm. At first, however, several at- 
tempts were made by the sovereigns to settle the matter 

286 



THE WAR WITH FRANCE. 28/ 

by treaty, giving a portion of the Spanish dominions to 
each of the claimants. But from various causes these at- 
tempts all fell through. Philip of Anjou ascended the 
throne of Spain, but it was agreed that Spain should 
never be annexed to France. Then war broke outbreak of 
out between Germany and France; and within *^® '^^^• 
a year England, under the guidance of Lord Godolphin, 
the lord treasurer, and Marlborough, also declared war 
against Louis. In alliance with England were Holland, 
Prussia, and Hanover. Marlborough took command of 
the English forces, and England and France came into 
armed collision, on sea and land, in many parts of the 
world. 

The leading events of this memorable war, in which 
Marlborough won undying laurels, may be briefly stated. 
It lasted for a period of eleven years. In its course the 
four p^reatest battles were plained by Marlbor- 

° . Marlbor- 

ough. These four battles were Blenheim (1704), ough-s 

Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde (1708), and Mal- 
plaquet (1709). Besides these signal triumphs, the Eng- 
lish fleet under Sir George Rooke took the giant fortress 
of Gibraltar, commanding the entrance to the Mediterra- 
nean Sea (1704), which remains in possession of the Eng- 
lish to this day. The fortress of Lille \vas successfully 
besieged by Prince Eugene, one of Marlborough's most 
valiant generals, and the French were entirely driven out 
of the Netherlands (Holland). The campaign in Spain 
resulted in some advantage to England and her allies, and 
the English captured the island of Minorca. Before the 
war closed, however, Marlborough in spite of his splendid 
achievements, was deprived of the command of the Eng- 
lish army, and dismissed in disgrace from all his offices. 



288 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

This was the result of the intense strife of political parties 
in England. 

Marlborough and Godolphin were Whigs. But in time 
the Tories got the upper hand in the cabinet and in Par- 
The Tories liainent ; and they hastened to visit their hatred 
in power, both upou the great Whig general and the great 
Whig statesman. The Tories had opposed the war. Many 
of them were friendly to the exiled house of Stuart, and 
were hostile to the settlement by which the Electress of 
Hanover was designated as the successor of Anne. These 
" high Tories " secretly hoped for the restoration of 
James's son after Anne's death. In alliance with them 
there grew up a strong "high church" party in the national 
church, which revived the old doctrine that it was sinful 
to resist or disobey the rightful king. One of the most 
distinguished divines belonging to this section of the 
church, Dr. Sacheverell, preached a series of sermons in 
which he denounced the revolution, and almost openly 
advocated the return of the Stuarts. He was tried and 
condemned by the House of Lords ; but his teachings pro- 
duced great excitement and won many adherents through 
the country. 

The Tories came into power (1710) under the brilliant 
leadership of Harley, afterwards Earl of Oxford, and St. 
John, afterwards Viscount Bolingbroke. Two years later 
they dismissed Marlborough ; and the year after Marlbor- 
ough was disgraced, peace was concluded between Eng- 
land and her allies on one side, and France on the other, 
The treaty by the famous treaty of Utrecht (17 13). By the 
of Utrecht, terms of this treaty, Philip was allowed to retain 
the Spanish throne, on condition that he should never be 
king of France, and that Spain and France should forever 



THE WAR WITH FRANCE. 289 

remain separate nations ; England acquired the possession 
of Gibraltar, Minorca, and Nova Scotia, and the privilege 
of selling slaves to the American colonies of Spain ; the 
French king agreed to refrain from lending aid to the heir 
of the Stuarts ; some minor concessions were made to 
Holland ; and Austria obtained the Spanish Netherlands 
and Naples. 

In the fifth year of Queen Anne's reign England and 
Scotland were combined into one kingdom (1707). They 
had been ruled by the same sovereign, indeed, union be- 
for nearly a century ; but each had had its sen- tweensng- 

■I J ' i land and 

arate Parliament, laws, and church. The Scots scouand. 
had become very much discontented with the duties im- 
posed by England on Scottish productions, and the restric- 
tions put by England on Scottish trade. The Scottish 
Highlanders, moreover, were dangerously favorable to the 
house of Stuart. On both sides it came to be thought 
best that the two kingdoms should become one. Commis- 
sioners were appointed on behalf of each kingdom, who 
drew up and carried into operation the "Act of Union." 
By this agreement, the Scottish Parliament was abolished, 
and Scotland was given the right to be represented by 
forty-five members in the English House of Commons, and 
by sixteen peers in the English House of Lords ; the Pres- 
byterian was established as the State church of Scotland; 
and the Scots were accorded the same freedom of trade 
which the English enjoyed. 

Thus was created the " United Ki-ngdom of Great Brit- 
ain " ; and Parliament became the " British Parliament." 
Another century was to elapse before Ireland was also 
included in the united kingdom. In the interval, Ireland 
continued to have her separate Parliament. In Queen 



290 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

Anne's reign Ireland was more grievously oppressed than 
ever. The most severe of the cruelly unjust "penal laws," 
The Penal directed against the Catholics, and put most vig- 
Laws. orously in force against the Irish Catholics, were 

passed at this period. These laws forbade Catholics to 
teach, prohibited them from inheriting land, crippled their 
industries, and excluded them from all local and national 
offices. They could not be judges, lawyers, magistrates, 
sheriffs, or jurymen. The penal laws, in short, put the 
Irish Catholics completely at the mercy of their Protes- 
tant fellow-countrymen. 

The contention between the Tories and the Whigs was 
at its height in the last year of Anne's reign. Anne her- 
party con- sclf Hkcd the Torics best, and was thought to 
tentiono. sympathize with them in looking favorably upon 
the restoration of her half-brother, James Stuart. The 
Whigs charged Bolingbroke and other Tory chiefs with 
plotting to bring about a restoration, and there certainly 
was a very formidable party in England which desired such 
an event. If James Stuart had been a Protestant he 
would with little doubt have succeeded Anne on the 
throne. But he adhered firmly to the Catholic faith, 
and thereby forfeited the opportunity which seemed to be 
open to him. In the midst of the bitter strife of parties, 
Queen Anne died, after a reign of twelve years (17 14). 
It happened that the Electress Sophia, who had been cho- 
sen by the Act of Settlement as her successor, had died 
two months before Anne. The next heir was Sophia's 
son, George of Hanover, who now ascended the throne 
cf Great Britain as George the First. 



CHAPTER XLVII. 

THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 

GEORGE the First was fifty-four years of age when he 
ascended the British throne. He was a dull, stubborn 
man, of dissolute habits and sluggish temperament. He 
could not speak a word of English ; and after character 
he came to England, he could only make himself of George i. 
understood in very poor Latin. Yet he was prudent and 
cautious, and was quite content to reign according to the 
will of his subjects. He never tried to exercise powers 
which exceeded the provisions of the Bill of Rights. He 
never attempted to set the royal authority above the law. 
The English did not love him any more than they had 
loved William of Orange ; and like William of Orange, 
George never felt at home in England, but was always 
looking with longing eyes to his snug little German realm 
of Hanover. 

The thirteen years of the rule of George the First were 
chiefly notable for the struggles between the two great 
political parties for ascendancy in his councils. These 
two parties had now become well defined ; the system by 
which England was governed by the party which succeeded 
in securing a majority of the House of Commons was 
permanently settled. The cabinet, in all its members, 
represented the dominant party of the day. The Tories 

291 



292 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

v.-ere, as they have been ever since, the champions of the 
royal power, of the privileges of nobility and of property, 
Tories and ^nd of the State church. They did not wish 
Whigs. great changes to be made in the constitution. 
They feared reforms, and were in favor of " letting well 
enough alone." The Whigs, on the other hand, advocated 
such changes in the constitution and the laws from time to 
time as advancing years and circumstances seemed to 
them to demand. They were for keeping up with the pro- 
gressive intelligence and wealth of the country. They 
leaned to the side of political liberty and of religious 
toleration. 

Although the Whigs were thus the party of progress, 
many great and powerful nobles were included in their 
ranks. It had been chiefly the influence of the great \\'hig 
lords, indeed, which had expelled the house of Stuart, 
placed William of Orange on the throne, and made Parlia- 
ment superior in power to the crown. These '' revolution 
TheRevoiu- ^^ higs," as they were called, were really the con- 
tiou Whigs, trolling power in the reign of George the First, 
The House of Commons had become the most powerful 
a;2:encv in the realm, and contained a large number of 
members who had been elected by the influence of the 
Whig nobles. Many boroughs were situated on the 
estates of these nobles ; and the voters in these boroughs 
always elected the man whom the lord of the manor dic- 
tated to them. Thus the " revolution Whigs " had a strong 
following, both in the House of Lords and in the House 
of Commons. 

George the First found the Tories in office. But not 
only did he himself prefer the Whigs, in whom he recog- 
nized the party which had awarded him the throne, but 



THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 293 

the country now chose a Parliament in which the Whigs 
had a decided majority. Tlie Tory cabinet was dismissed , 
and a Whig cabinet, the leading members of which were 
Robert Walpole, General Stanhope, and Lord Townshend, 
took office. The Whig cabinet lost no time in Tories 
calling their Tory predecessors to a sharp ac- "^^^[^^^^ 
count. Bolingbroke, Ormond, and Oxford were Treason, 
charged with high treason in favoring the Stuart " Pre- 
tender," and in making a disgraceful peace with France. 
The two first fled to the continent. Oxford was thrown 
into the Tower. After being kept a prisoner for two years, 
he was tried and acquitted by the House of Lords. Before 
they had been in office a year, the Whig cabinet was called 
upon to put down a rebellious attempt to restore James 
Edward Stuart to the throne. 

Two risings took place on behalf of the exiled Stuart 
prince, or, as he was called, "the Pretender." The Earl 
of Mar proclaimed a revolt in the Highlands of 
Scotland ; and many warlike clans, led by their Pretender, 
chieftains, joined him. At the same time a small 
band of Jacobites (which was the name given to the par- 
tisans of the Stuarts) gathered under the Earl of Derwent- 
water in the north of England. Both of these insurrec- 
tions were crushed on the same day. The Duke of Argyll, 
at the head of clan Campbell, defeated Mar at Sheriff- 
muir, and General Carpenter captured Derwentwater's 
entire force at Preston (17 15). Mar retreated to Perth, 
where he was deserted by most of his Highland bands. 
The Stuart Pretender landed on the Scottish coast, only 
to find his cause lost, and to seek safety, in company with 
Mar, in hurried flight back to the continent. A stern fate 
awaited the leaders of this abortive revolt. Derwent- 



294 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND, 

water, Nair, Kenmuir, and between thirty ^nd forty other 

noblemen and gentlemen were hanged for treason ; and 

nearly a thousand rebels were transported beyond sea. 

James Edward made several further attempts to recover 

the crown of his ancestors, but miserably failed in each 

instance. 

According to the then existing law, the duration of a 

Parliament was three years. Soon after the sup- 
Duration 1 II- 
ofPariia- pression of the Jacobite rebellion, the term of a 

ments. Parliament was extended to seven years ; and to 
this day seven years is the period during which a Parlia- 
ment may remain in existence ; although, as a rule, Parlia- 
ments are dissolved before they complete their legal limit. 
Foreign affairs now engaged the attention of the Whig 
cabinet, and excited dissension between the Whig leaders. 
An alliance was formed between England, France, and Hol- 
land, against Spain; and, after a time, the Em- 

Alliance ' ^ . . . 

with peror of Germany cast in his lot with the allies 
(17 17-17 1 8). Louis the Fourteenth, the great 
French king, was dead, and had been succeeded by his 
great-grandson, Louis the Fifteenth, who was still a child. 
The government of France was meanwhile carried on by 
the Duke of Orleans as regent. English statesmen desired 
the friendship of France, whom they had once so much 
feared. It was well that France should abandon the cause 
of the Stuarts, and bear good will to the House of Han- 
over. The regent Orleans, on his side, feared the ambi- 
tion of Philip of Spain, and wished for allies with whom to 
hold him in check. 

This alliance was bitterly opposed by Townshend and 
Walpole, who retired from the cabinet. The allies made 
war upon Spain. The Spanish fleet was completely de- 



THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 295 

feated by the English under Admiral Byng, and the allied 
forces made such progress in their invasion of Spain that 
Philip was soon compelled to come to terms, invasion of 
He abandoned all the claims he had made, and spain. 
agreed once more not to aspire to the French throne 
(1720). This military success had the result of once more 
unitins: the Whio; chiefs. Those who had left the cabinet 
now returned to it. One of these reconciled chiefs was 
Sir Robert Walpole, who, it was clear, was the rising man 
in his party. Within two years after the peace with Spain, 
Walpole became the head of the cabinet as prime minister 
(172 1), and he continued to guide the destinies of Great 
Britain without interruption for a period of twenty years. 

Walpole was admirably fitted for the politics of the age 
in which he lived. In spite of some conspicuous sir Robert 
faults and vices, he was one of the greatest prime waipoie. 
ministers England has ever had. He had a clear insight into 
character; his intellect was at once keen and practical; 
he was a master of the details of public business ; he had 
a marvellous dexterity in ruling, guiding, and persuading 
the House of Commons; he well understood how to man- 
age the stubborn old king; he was shrewd and cautious; 
he was not vindictive towards his opponents ; and he sin- 
cerely desired that P^ngland would remain at peace with 
all the world, and pursue in tranquillity her progress as a 
great commercial and colonizing power. On the other 
hand, Walpole was corrupt in his methods, unscrupulous 
in pursuing his ends, coarse in his habits, and rough in 
his manners. He did not believe in the integrity of men, 
but declared that "every man has his price." Acting on 
this maxim, Walpole often resorted to the bribery of mem- 
bers of Parliament in order to carry his measures. 



296 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

The long period during which Walpole controlled the 
affairs of Great Britain was for the most part one of inter- 
nal and external tranquillity. Now and then he found 
himself forced to yield to a determined public opinion 
which opposed his proje-cts ; but in general, by retaining 
the support of the great Whig families, and by shrewdly 
managing the House of Commons, he contrived to have 
his own way. In the midst of his administration, the old 
king, George the First, suddenly died (1727). George 
had crossed the ocean to pay a visit to his beloved Hano- 
ver, and on the way was seized with a fatal fit of apoplexy. 
He expired in his carriage. His son, who was forty-four 
George the yG^rs old, asccndcd the throne of Great Britain 
Second, ^g Gcorgc tlic Sccond. This king was a coura- 
geous, choleric, bustling little man, who spoke broken 
English, was as immoral as his father had been, and had 
a fondness for war. He was called by the English " dap- 
per little George." 

For a long time the younger George had been on very 
ill terms with his father, and they had mutually hated each 
other. George the Second visited his hostility also upon 
his father's favorite minister. Sir Robert Walpole. But he 
had not long been on the throne before he discovered 
that without Walpole he could not get along at all. So 
he grudgingly kept him in power. In spite of Walpole's 
War with ^^vc of pcacc, hc was at last driven into a war 
Spain. .^^,j^|-|-^ Spain by the overwhelming pressure of 
public opinion. The Spaniards, jealous of the trade 
which the English were busily cultivating with the Ameri- 
can colonies of Spain, began to seize upon and search 
English merchantmen, and to cruelly maltreat English 
sailors. As a result, war broke out between the two coun- 



THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 29/ 

tries (1739). Its fortunes were at first favorable to Spain. 
Walpole's enemies eagerly grasped at the defeats of the 
English to assail the minister; and a Parliament Fan of 
was chosen with a majority hostile to him. Wal- waipoie. 
pole was at last driven from power, and was transferred to 
the House of Lords with the title of Earl of Orford (1742). 
In the course of his long tenure of power, Walpole had 
alienated many able statesmen by his jealousy of their 
talents. One by one they had left him, and joined his 
opponents. He had, besides, proposed some measures 
which were very unpopular. One of these was a tax 
which was very obnoxious to the people, called the " ex- 
cise." This was a duty levied on goods sent from place 
to place within the kingdom. It w\is so bitterly opposed 
that Walpole had to abandon it. The minister who suc- 
ceeded Walpole was Lord Carteret, who only remained at 
the head of affairs two years. The Duke of 

The 

Newcastle, and his brother, Henry Pelham, then Newcastle 
came into power, supported by most of the great 
Whig families. Newcastle was a pompous, talkative man, 
who was little respected, Henry Pelham was more sensi- 
ble, a good man of business, with some political skill, and 
a trained experience in public affairs. But there was a 
young man belonging to the party which was now in the 
ascendant, whose genius and influence were soon destined 
to overtop all others. This was William Pitt, famous in 
history as the great Earl of Chatham. 

William Pitt was poor, proud, ambitious, upright, and 
marvellously eloquent. There was a certain dig- wnuam 
nity and loftiness in his bearing which led men ^'**^' 
instinctively to look up to him. In an age of general 
political corruption, he set a noble example of purity, 



298 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

personal honor, and disinterestedness. He was bold and 
fearless, and always stood out bravely for that which he 
thought to be right. By these qualities he soon won a 
place in the hearts of his countrymen, and a position of 
great influence and authority in Parliament. Pelham 
wished to give this brilliant and popular young orator a 
place in his ministry. But it happened that Pitt had 
deeply offended the king. In the course of a debate, Pitt 
had spoken contemptuously of Hanover — which George 
the Second loved as much as his father had done — as a 
" despicable electorate." The king therefore for a long 
Pitt takes time refused to give Pitt an office. But at last 
office. j^g ^y^^ compelled to yield to the demand of Pel- 
ham, and Pitt became a minister ; and from that time Pitt 
was the leading spirit in British politics for many years. 



CHAPTER XLVIII. 

THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 

'^ I ^HE last twenty years of the reign of George the Sec- 
-*- ond were largely taken up with a series of wars. The 
first of these wars was brought about by a disputed suc- 
cession to the throne of Austria, to which there 

' The Aus- 

were two claimants. Maria Theresa, the daugh- trian suc- 

, I . f 1 1 -1 cession. 

ter and heiress or the last emperor, was sustained 
by England, Holland, and Austria. The Elector of Bava- 
ria, on the other hand, was supported by Bavaria, Prussia, 
and France. A combined English and Dutch force of 
forty thousand men, under the command of King George 
himself, defeated the French in a great battle at Dettin- 
gen ; but two years after, the Duke of Cumberland, a 
younger son of King George, was repulsed after a des- 
pera-te conflict with the French under Prince Maurice at 
Fontenoy (1745). The final result of this war was that 
M*aria Theresa obtained the imperial throne, but not 
until Frederick the Great of Prussia had seized and 
annexed to his own kingdom the Austrian province of 
Silesia. Peace was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la- 
Chapelle (1748). 

While the foreign war was going on, Charles Edward, the 
eldest son of James Edward, the Stuart Pretender (James 
Edward himself being now dead), raised the standard of 

299 



300 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

revolt in Scotland. He thought it a good opportunity, 
The young when England was involved in the conflict on 
Pretender. ^Yie Continent, to make a bold stroke to recover 
the throne. He landed with a few adherents on the coast 
of Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. The Highland 
chieftains soon rallied to his side. Charles Edward was 
young, spirited, gallant in bearing, and engaging in man- 
ners, and aroused the ardor of the rude warriors of the 
north. His progress was at first triumphant. He entered 
Edinburgh at the head of his clans, put the English army 
under Cope to rout, and advanced through England as 
far as Derby. But the English did not flock to his stan- 
dard as the Highlanders had done ; and Charles Edward 
retreated to Glasgow, and from thence besieged Stirling. 

Meanwhile the Duke of Cumberland hastened north- 
ward with a formidable force, and the insurgents were 
forced to retreat to Inverness. At last the royal troops 
confronted Charles Edward and his hardy followers at 
Battle 6f Culloden Field, and in the battle which ensued 
cuiioden. Cumberland completely shattered and dispersed 
the Pretender's army (1746). Twenty-five hundred Scots 
were left on the field, and the last attempt of the Stuarts 
to recover the throne of their ancestors had entirely failed. 
Charles Edward wandered for several months, amid con- 
stant perils and adventures, among the Scottish mountains 
and islands, and at last escaped to the continent. His 
leading adherents were tried for treason and executed, and 
some of the ancient privileges of the Highland chiefs were 
taken from them. Charles Edward died more than forty 
years after (1788); and his only brother, Henry, the last 
direct heir of the Stuarts in the male line, died a Catholic 
cardinal early in the present century. 




I^C \PL (). THE \Ol^-i> PHhlLNDlH — Txci ^ 



THE SEVEN YEARS WAR, 3OI 

After a peaceful interval of six years, war again broke out 
between England and France. This is known in history 
as the " Seven Years' War." Pelham, the prime These-^en 
minister, had died, and had been succeeded by '^®^'"®' "^^^'■• 
his brother, the Duke of Newcastle. But the most power- 
ful member of the cabinet was William Pitt. The conduct 
of the conflict which now broke out between England and 
France was left in his masterful hands. He was ably 
seconded by Lord Anson, who was the first lord of the 
admiralty. Anson was the most flamous of living naval 
heroes. He had sailed with his fleet around the world a 
few years before, and had done much damage to the Span- 
ish settlements in the Pacific. As soon as Pitt became the 
ruling mind in the cabinet, the war went on in dead 
earnest, and was pursued by Pitt with unfaltering vigor. 
It was sustained by the enthusiastic support of the coun- 
try, for he was the most popular minister who had been in 
power for a century. 

The most striking feature of the Seven Years' War 
was the struggle between the English and the French for 
supremacy in North America. Both countries had been 
establishing and increasing their settlements on our conti- 
nent through a period of many years. The English had 
planted colonies in New En2:land, Virs^inia, New 

^ » 7 & T r^^^ Englisn 

York, Pennsylvania, the Carolinas, and Georgia, and French 
The French had taken possession of Canada ^^ ^^enca. 
and Louisiana. A dispute had arisen between the French 
and English colonies as to the country west of the Alle- 
ghanies. Both claimed the right to hold and occupy it. 
The French in Canada took the first active steps to make 
good their claim. They proposed to construct a line of 
forts west of the Alleghanies, from Ohio to Louisiana, and 



332 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

actually did build Fort Duquesne, on the banks of the 
Ohio River. The English resolved to resist the project of 
the Canadians by force of arms. An expedition under 
George Washington crossed the mountains to attack the 
fort, but was forced to retire before the superior strength 
of the French. 

Then the English government sent an expedition 
under General Braddock across the ocean, to oppose the 
French advance. But Braddock was assailed in the woods 
by the French and Indians, lost a large portion of his 
force, and was himself fatally wounded (1755). The Eng~ 
lish had better fortune in the American struggle four 
years later. General Wolfe, at the head of eight thou- 
sand men, attacked Quebec, the capital of Canada, while 
other British forces captured Niagara and Ticonderoga. 
At last, after a long siege, in which the English suffered 
Capture of Hiauy hardships, Wolfe scaled the heights of 
Quebec. Abraham, took the French by surprise, and en- 
gaged in a bitter conflict. Wolfe himself was mortally 
wounded. As he lay on the field, he heard his soldiers 
crying, "They fly! They fly!" "Who fly.?" asked the 
dying hero. *' The French ! " " Then," nuirmured Wolfe, 
" I die happy." A few days after, Quebec was captured 
by the British troops (1759).. The next year Montreal also 
surrendered to the English, and the whole of Canada be- 
came an English colony. 

At the same time that this struggle for supremacy was 
going on in America, the hostile nations were fighting 
The struggle ^^ch otlicr in Europc. Frederick the Great, 
in Europe, j^jng of Prussia, became the ally of England. 
The early events of the war were favorable to the French. 
They took the island of Minorca, and the Duke of Cum- 



THE SEVEN YEARS WAR. 333 

berland ^vas forced to retreat before their forces to the 
seacoast. But Pitt's energy soon turned the tide of con- 
flict. The allied troops were placed under the command 
of the Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, who chased the 
French out of Germany and across the Rhine, and gave 
ihem a severe defeat at Crefeld (1758). At the same time 
the English under General Amherst took the island of 
Cape Breton from the French, and added it to the Eng- 
lish dominion. Ferdinand was defeated in the following 
year at Bergen, but soon after retrieved himself at Min- 
den, where he completely routed- the French forces, and 
compelled them to seek safety at Frankfort. 

The later years of this memorable war brought almost 
uninterrupted success and glory to the English arms. 
Admirals Rodney, Boscawen, and Flawke de- 

■' English ra- 

feated the French fleets which attempted to vai victo- 
make an invasion of England, sinking many of 
the most formidable ships, and almost extinguishing the 
French navy. Ferdinand held at bay, in Germany, a 
French army much superior in numbers to his own. At a 
later period in the war, Spain became the ally of France. 
But the English continued to advance from victory to vic- 
tory. They drove the Spaniards out of Portugal, and took 
Havana in the West Indies, and Manilla in the eastern 
seas. The Seven Years' War was finally brought to an 
end by the Treaty of Paris, by the provisions of w^hich 
England was awarded Canada, Cape Breton, several 
islands in the West Indies, Minorca, and Florida ; while 
Havana and Manilla were given back to Spain (1762). 

It was during the reign of the second George that tlie 
foundations of England's splendid empire in India were 
laid. English settlements had been established on the 



304 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

peninsula of Hindostan for a century and a half. Queen 
Elizabeth granted to a company of English merchants, 
The Eng- afccrwards so powerful and famous as the East 
lish con- India Company, the exclusive ris^ht to the trade 

quest of : 

India. between that rich country and England From 

time to time the agents of this company had planted sta- 
tions at various points on the coast of Hindostan, had 
built forts and factories, and had paid rent for the land 
they occupied, to the natives. In the course of genera- 
tions these stations became more numerous, the settle- 
ments more populous, and the trade of the company more 
important and lucrative. But down to the time of George 
the Second, the colonies in Hindostan (or India, as it is 
more commonly called) had been purely mercantile, and 
no plan of political empire had been pursued. 

The French had also established stations at certain 
points on the Indian coast. When, therefore, the Seven 
Years' War arose between France and England, the rival 
settlements in India came into collision. Some of the 
native princes had become hostile to the English intruders, 
and the French sought the aid of these princes against 
their rivals. A war broke out between the English at' 
Madras, and the nabob of the large and powerful province 
of Bengal. At the head of the English troops of the 
East India Company was a brave and brilliant young sol- 
Victories of ^'^^^, Robcrt CHvc. Hc marchcd on Calcutta, 
ciive. defeated the nabob, and after a great battle with 

the native army at Plassey, in which he took the nabob 
himself captive, established the English power over Ben- 
gal (1757). Soon after, the English defeated the French 
at Wandiwash, took Pondicherry, the principal French 
station on the coast, and finally reduced the French to a 



THE SEVEN YEARS WAR. 305 

few small settlements. The English company now be- 
came predominant at all the chief points along the coast ; 
and from that time the English gradually extended their 
arms and control over province after province of India, 
until at last nearly the entire peninsula became subject to 
their sway. 



CHAPTER XLIX. 

GEORGE THE THIRD, 

GEORGE the Second died suddenly, in the seventy- 
seventh year of his age and in the thirty-third year 
of his reign (1760). His eldest son, Frederick, having died 
before him, the old king was succeeded by his grandson, a 
young man of twenty-two, who ascended the throne by 
the title of George the Third. This monarch 
had the longest reign in English history. He 
wore the crown for the remarkable period of sixty years ; 
and during that period many of the most memorable events 
in the annals of the English people took place. To Amer- 
icans the name of George the Third is the most familiar 
in the roll of English kings; for it w^as in his time, and to 
a great degree owing to his conduct, that the American 
colonies threw off the English yoke, and became a free 
and independent nation. 

The accession of George the Third was hailed by his 

subjects with joy and enthusiasm. He was the first king 

of the house of Hanover who had been born and bred on 

Ensflish soil. His traits, moreover, were stur- 

The yotmg ^ ^ J 

king's char- dily and thoroughly English. He was an excel- 
lent type of the national character. He had 
strong common-sense, a genuine love of country, a true 
pride in England's greatness, a desire to benefit his sub- 

306 




GEORGE III. RECEIVING INTELLIGENCE OF HIS ACCESSION TO THE 
THRONE. — Page 306. 



GEORGE THE THIRD. 30/ 

jects, a profound reverence for religion, plain and simple 
tastes, and moral and domestic habits. He was always 
devoted to his homely little German wife, and his family 
circle. On the other hand he was obstinate, wilful, nar- 
row-minded, rather dull and slow in intellect, and was 
possessed of a great idea of his royal authority. He had 
not been long on the throne before the two political par- 
ties changed places. The Whigs went out of oifice, and 
the Tories succeeded them. This was mainly owing to 
the course pursued by the young king himself. 

During his early years, George had been trained and 
guided by a Scottish nobleman, the Earl of Bute. On his 
accession to the throne, Bute became his chief g^^e and 
adviser and friend. Bute was a Tory, and had ^°'^- 
taught the young king to dislike the great Whig families 
which had so long controlled the affairs of Britain. Early 
in George's reign, therefore, a bitter struggle for power 
took place between the Whigs, with Pitt as their leader, 
and the Tories under Bute. The question upon which the 
two parties finally joined issue was whether the war with 
France should be continued, or whether peace should be 
made. By the aid of Henry Fox, a very able but unscru- 
pulous politician, a vote was carried in the House of Com- 
mons by a large majority in favor of peace. Pitt had 
already retired from office, and now Newcastle, the Whig 
prime minister, resigned (1762). The new Tory prime 
minister was George Grenville. But it turned out that 
Grenville would not accept Bute as his guide, and, after 
holding office for three years, he in turn was driven from 
power by Bute's influence. 

The Whigs were now once more reluctantly called by 
the king into his councils, with the Marquis of Rockingham 



308 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

as prime minister. But Rockingham only remained in 
office a year, when Pitt again became the leading spirit of 
British politics. The new prime minister was the Duke 
of Grafton ; but Pitt, who was created Earl of Chatham, 
and took his seat in the House of Lords, was the real 
chief of the cabinet. Pitt, however, was no longer either 
as popular or as powerful as he had once been. The peo- 
ple did not like his acceptance of a title ; and 

Decline of '^ _ ^ _ 

Pitt's influ- his desertion of his old friends, the Whigs, and 
his subservience to the king, still further les- 
sened his influence. Shattered in health, as well as shorn 
of his old authority, he retired from office ; and two years 
afterwards, the Grafton cabinet, of which Pitt had been 
the chief member, gave place to the cabinet of Lord 
North (1770). 

During the period of these various political changes, 
several important events took place. One of these events 
John was the arrest of John Wilkes, an able member 

Wilkes. q£ Parliament and a bold political agitator, who 
had written some very severe pamphlets against the mem- 
bers of the government. Wilkes was arrested on what 
was called a "general warrant"; that is, a warrant which 
did not name the person to be taken, but gave the officers 
of the law a general authority to arrest anyone whom they 
judged to be guilty of an unlawful act. The arrest of 
Wilkes caused a great commotion through the country; 
and the good result of it was, that from that time no 
general warrants were ever issued. A few years after, 
Wilkes caused further trouble to the ministers in power. 
He had been chosen a member of Parliament by the 
county of Middlesex, and had been thrown into prison 
lor wilting libels on certain public men. As he persisted 



GEORGE THE THIRD. 3O9 

in doing this, he was expelled from the House of Com- 
mons. Three times he was re-elected by Middlesex, and 
each time the House expelled him. At last the candi- 
date opposed to him, although he had a far smaller num- 
ber of votes than Wilkts, was awarded his seat in the 
House. 

It was during the first ten years of the reign of George 
the Third that the laws were passed which provoked the 
grave discontent of the American colonies, and 

^ _ ' The Ameri- 

instigated their final resistance to English rule, can coio- 
England had long subjected the colonies to her 
own interests in trade and manufactures. The colonies 
were restricted and were prohibited from trading in arti- 
cles which the home country produced, and from entering 
into competition with England in foreign markets. George 
Grenville, while prime minister, carried through Parlia- 
ment an act which first led the Americans to think of 
active resistance. This was the famous " Stamp Act" 
(1765). It proposed to levy a tax upon the Americans by 
a duty on stamped paper. The Stamp Act aroused so 
much opposition, even in England, that it was repealed 
by Grenville's successor. But the Grafton cabinet per- 
suaded Parliament to pass a law which the Americans 
thought even more oppressive. This law levied duties 
on certain articles entering American ports, notably a 
duty on tea ; and one of the first open acts of resistance 
in America was the throwing overboard of a cargo of 
tea which had been brought by an English ship into 
Boston harbor. 

The Americans protested against being taxed when 
they were not represented in Parliament, the body which 
levied the taxes ; and it was upon this principle that 



310 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

they justified their opposition to the proceedings of the 
Causes of English government. The subject of the revolt 
the Ameri- ^f j-]^g American colonies and the American 

can Revo- ... 

lution. Revolution properly belongs to the history cf 

the United States. The leading events of that great 
slruf^f^le can only be briefly outlined here. King George 
and his advisers refused to abrogate the unjust laws which 
outraged the colonies, and resolved to make them submit 
to his rule by force of arms. In this he was supported by 
Lord North, who had succeeded Grafton as prime minis- 
ter, and by a majority of the House of Commons. On ths 
other hand, the king's tyrannical treatment of the colonies 
was bitterly and strenuously opposed by William Pitt, Earl 
of Chatham. The last years of that great man were de- 
voted to a heroic defence of the Americans against their 
oppressors. At first he strove to settle the difficulties be- 
tween the colonies and the mother country by peaceable 
concession. When he had failed in that, he justified the 
resistance of the colonies, and in words of burning elo- 
quence declared that their cause was just, and that they 
would never be conquered. 

The war of the American Revolution opened with the 

battles of Lexington and Concord (April, 1775), which 

were soon followed by the battle of Bunker Hill 

Events of n' r i i -i i 

tho Revoiu- (June, 1775). Li all of these battles, while the 
*'°''' English troops won the day, the bravery and de- 

termination of the Americans were amply tested. A year 
later, the American colonies, by their Congress at Phila- 
delphia, declared their entire independence of the British 
crown (J-uly 4, 1776). A little more than a year after, the 
English general, Burgoyne, with five thousand troops, sur- 
rendered to the Americans under Gates at Saratoga (Oct, 



GEORGE THE THIRD. 3II 

1777). The events of the war were sometimes favorable 
to one side, and sometimes to the other ; but on the whole 
the colonists, though poor, ill-clad, and ill-fed, with an 
army less numerous and less disciplined than that of the 
British, progressed towards the achievement of their great 
purpose. Soon after the surrender of Burgoyne, France 
recognized the independence of the colonies, and sent 
troops under Lafayette and Rochambeau to give them aid 
(1778). A year later Spain followed the French example 
in acknowledging the new nation. Finally the surrender 
of Lord Cornwallis with his army to General Washington 
at Yorktown (Oct. 1781) at last convinced the English 
that their cause in America was defeated, and that the 
colonies were forever lost to the British empire. 

Throughout the period of the American war, Lord North 
had remained in power as prime minister. He was trusted 
and liked by the king, and, as a determined Tory, he did 
all he could to sustain and increase the royal authority. 
He agreed with the king in the policy of crushing out, if 
possible, the resistance of the American colonies. In this 
he was at first supported by the majority of the House of 
Commons and the nation, and in the early years of his 
premiership the power of the crown was greater than it 
had been since the Revolution. But when, in course of 
time, it appeared that the war in America was going 
against the English, the Whig opposition to it and to Lord 
North grew gradually strong. Several j^oung statesmen of 
rare talents arose to combat the Tory minister. One of 
these was Edmund Burke, an Irishman, and the 

1 . . , . . . Burke and 

greatest political writer that the British king- the youn- 
dom has ever produced. Another was Charles ^^"^ ^°^' 
James Fox, a younger son of Henry Fox, who began his 



312 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

political career as a Tory, but became the foremost cham- 
pion of the Whigs, and in time was recognized as the 
most powerful Parliamentary debater of his time. 

The Whigs were devoted to the cause of reform. They 
attempted, even while Lord North was still at the head of 
affairs, to cut down the expenses of the state, and to cur- 
tail the increasing power of the crown. It was a Whig 
maxim that " the power of the crown has increased, is in- 
creasing, and ought to be diminished." The turn of the 
Whigs to obtain office came at last. The failure to subdue 
the American colonies was a death-blow to the cabinet of 
Lord North. The House of Commons no longer sup- 
The Whigs ported it ; and the Whigs were once more called 
in power, j^^q ^j^g loyal couucils Under the Marquis of 
Rockingham. Both Fox and Burke were awarded high 
office ; and some reforms were promptly carried through 
(1782). But the death of the Marquis of Rockingham, a 
few months after his return to office, was followed by a 
split among the Whig leaders. The Earl of Shelburne 
became prime minister ; but Fox, Burke, and others re- 
fused to serve under him, and resigned their places. Shel- 
burne could not long sustain himself without the support 
of these able men, and he in turn, after a premiership of 
seven months, was forced to retire. 

Fox and Burke now committed an act for which they 
have been severely criticized. Laying aside their old ani- 
mosity against Lord North and the Tories, they formed an 
alliance with them. Fox proposed in the House of Com- 
mons that peace should be made with America. Shel- 
burne strenuously opposed the proposition. The vote was 
carried; Shelburne resigned ; and North and Fox, with a 
" Coalition Cabinet," came into office. One of the first 



_ GEORGE THE THIRD. 313 

acts of this cabinet was to make a treaty, by which Eng- 
land recognized the independence of the United States of 
America (Sept. 1783). It is interestinsf that 

1 1 T 1 XT , , • • The coali- 

this was done by Lord North, the very minister tion cabi- 
who had from the first advocated and conducted '^^*' 
the conflict with the colonies. The " Coalition Cabinet," 
however, composed as it was of Whigs and Tories, was 
not strong or united enough to last. The king bitterly 
disliked Fox, who was the leading spirit in the cabinet, 
and used all his influence to bring about Fox's defeat. 
An opportunity soon came. Fox brought in a bill to 
make some changes in the government of India. This 
bill was defeated in the House of Lords ; and the Coali- 
tion Cabinet, after holding office for only ten months, fell 
from power. 



CHAPTER L. 

WILLIAM PITT. 

THE great Earl of Chatham was dead ; but he had 
left behind him a worthy heir to his talents and his 
fame. His younger son, whose name was also William 
Pitt, was already a distinguished orator and statesman at 
the time of the fall of the coalition cabinet. He had en- 
tered the House of Commons when he came of age, and 
had made his first speech when only twenty-one years old. 
And now, when only twenty-four, he became prime minis- 
ter of England (1783). There is, perhaps, no instance in 
history in which a man so young, by the sheer force of 
genius, has risen to so great a height of political power. 
AVilliam Pitt continued to be prime minister through an 
eventful period of eighteen years, and showed himself to 
be the greatest executive officer who had been in power 
Character slucc Robcrt Walpolc. In many respects he 
of William resembled his illustrious father. He was proud, 

Pitt the -t ' 

younger. purc, ambitious, poor, and entirely devoted to 
the welfare of his country ; and he was gifted with an 
eloquence not as gorgeous and thrilling, indeed, as Chat- 
ham's, but clear, strong, and incisive, and abounding in 
sound and compact argument. 

At first Pitt had to contend with a powerful and persist- 
ent opposition, which constantly threatened to drive him 

314 



WILLIAM PITT. 315 

from office. The House of Commons contained a major- 
ity liostile to him ; the eloquence of Fox and Burke stead- 
ily assailed him. He had only the support of pitt-s dim. 
the king, and of the king's personal adherents, c^^'^ies. 
But he fought his battle with unflagging courage. He 
dissolved Parliament, and was rewarded by the return of a 
new House of Commons which contained a large majority 
in his favor. Armed, now, Vv'ith irresistible power, Pitt 
entered upon an energetic career of internal reform. He 
reduced the national debt, which in course of The nation- 
time had swelled to the alarming figure of ^^250,- ^^ *^®^*- 
000,000. He gave a public account, at regular intervals, 
of the condition of the treasury. At the same time he 
reduced the tariff on many articles, and thus gave a new 
impetus to British commerce. He reduced several taxes 
which weighed heavily on the poorer classes. He extend- 
ed soiTie of the benefits of his masterly financial policy 
to oppressed Ireland, and made a treaty with the French 
which increased the freedom and volume of trade between 
the two countries. 

Not content with financial reforms, Pitt set about politi- 
cal reforms. He desired that the House of Commons, 
which was now the most powerful of the three political 
estates, should more exactly reflect the opinions reforms. 
and wishes of the people. He tried to take away from 
some of the little boroughs controlled by nobles and large 
land-owners (called "rotten boroughs") the right to send 
members to Parliament, and to give this right to growing 
and thriving towns instead ; and he also wished to confer 
the suffrage upon larger numbers of the people. But 
England was not yet ripe for such changes, and the young 
prime minister was forced to give up his enlightened pro- 



3l6 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

ject. When Pitt had been hi office about five years, King 
Insanity of George the Third became ingane (1788). The 
the king. question tlien arose, whp, -should exercise the 
royal powers during his incapacity. The king's eldest 
son, George, Prince of Wales, had quarrelled with his 
father, had separated himself from Pitt and the rest of the 
king's friends, and had formed a close friendship with Fox 
and other leading Whigs. So the Whigs demanded that he 
had a right to be regent, with full royal power, so long as 
the king continued insane. 

Pitt, on the other hand, maintained that if the prince 
was made re^nt, it should be by a vote of Parliament, 
and that Parliament should place him under whatever re- 
strictions it pleased. Pie brought in a bill to this effect; 
but, fortunately, before the bill had become a law, the 
king recovered his reason, to the delight of all his people. 
While the first years of Pitt's tenure of office were devoted 
to party conflicts and internal reforms, the later years of 
his premiership were largely taken up with foreign compli- 
Foreign cations and terrible wars. First, England made 
'^^'■^- an alliance with Pmssia to defend the stadthold- 

er of Holland from any aggression by France. Then the 
Russians attacked the Turks, and Pitt ardently wished to 
protect the sultan from his assailant ,- but in this the na- 
tion would not support him. Finally the mightiest politi- 
cal convulsion which had shaken Europe for centuries — 
the French Revolution — suddenly broke out; and from 
that time, for many years, England was involved in the 
conflicts which speedily grew out of that tremendous 
overturning. 

The French people had long been dreadfully oppressed, 
both by their kings and by the nobility. Their monsy 



WILLIAM PITT. 317 

had been wrung from them to minister to the luxuries and 
pleasures of the great. At last the tyranny of their rulers 
could no longer be endured. The French rose ^he French 
in revolution (1789). At first their revolt was revolution, 
attended by moderation ; and the English, who sym- 
pathized with the cause of liberty, cherished hopes 
that the French were about to become as free as them- 
selves. Pitt and Fox, the two foremost of English states- 
men, were at the outset glad that the revolution had taken 
place. But after a while the French republicans 

. . , . Excesses of 

began to commit wild excesses and crimes. French re- 
They imprisoned the king and queen, tore down p^^^''^^^'"- 
the Bastille, and invaded the Tuileries. They then con- 
demned, not only the king and queen, but large numbers 
of priests, nobles, and titled women, as well as multi- 
tudes of persons of a lower rank, who were suspected of 
hostility to the republic, to cruel deaths by the guillotine. 
All the monarchs and privileged classes of Europe feared 
that revolutions would break out everywhere ; and in time 
all the powers combined against the French. 

The fury with which the revolution raged in France de- 
prived it of the sympathy of many Englishmen who, at the 
outset, had wished it to succeed. Among these English feei- 
were Pitt, the prime minister, and Burke, the '''^• 
most profound thinker among the Whigs. Fox still clung 
to his advocacy of those who were fiercely seeking to es- 
tablish a republic in France, and to do away forever with 
monarchs and nobles, and so separated from Burke, his 
lifelong friend. The English Tories, with Pitt at their 
head, pronounced against the revolution, and at last 
joined the continental enemies of France in making war 
upon her (1793). Austria and Prussia had alreadv formed 



315 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

an alliance to put down the revolution, and had attempted 
to invade France ; but they had been driven back by the 
heroic legions of the young republic. The first war in 
War with whicli England engaged against the French last- 
France. Q^i j-jjj-jg years (i 793-1802). At first the French 
bravely held their own. The English gained some naval suc- 
cesses, and took some of the French colonies in the East 
and West Indies ; but on the continent the French for sev- 
eral years successfully defended their frontier from attack. 
While the conflict was going on abroad, there were dis- 
turbances at home in England as a result of the French 
uprising. Pitt feared lest the discontented classes should 
imitate the French example, and rise in revolt. He be- 
came severe and arbitrary in his policy. Fie 
ciiange of caused tlic Habcas Corpus Act to be suspended, 
^°^^^^' curtailed the freedom of the press, and, as far as 

he could, brought the laws to bear harshly on the liberties 
of the people. Yet the great minister preferred peace to 
war, and would have made peace with the French if he 
could have done so on reasonable terms. But the French, 
answered because the En2:lish had taken sides with their 
foes, now assumed the offensive. They made a futile at- 
tempt to invade England by way of Ireland. This aroused 
the national spirit of the English, and the war was resumed 
with far greater intensity than before (1797). Spain and 
Holland had become the allies of France, But the 
Spanish fleet was defeated bv Tervis and Nel- 

Victories of ^ ' -' 

the English SOU at Cape St. Vincent, while the Dutch fleet 
met with a similar reverse at the hands of Dun- 
can at Camperdown. These brilliant victories of the 
English navy put an end to the scheme of an English 
invasion. 



WILLIAM PITT. 319 

A man of surpassing genius had now risen in France, 
who was destined to dazzle the world with his triumphs 
and his splendid career for many years, and to almost 
bring all Europe beneath his sway. This was Napoleon 
Bonaparte, the greatest warrior who had appeared on the 
earth since Julius Caesar. Napoleon's first military exploit 
was his defence of Toulon. He won world-wide fame by 
a brilliant campaign in Italy, and later by his expedition 
to Egypt, and his attempt to carry his conquests to Syria 
and the far East (1798). The English, who had plunged 
into the war with new vigor, were resolved to protect 
Syria from French occupation. The fleets of the two 
nations met off Aboukir, at the mouth of the Nile, and 
the naval battle which ensued resulted in a Battle of 
complete victory for Nelson, the English com- theNiie. 
mander. The next year the French were again beaten at 
Acre, and Napoleon was forced to give up his project 
of Asiatic conquest; and two years after, the victory of 
Abercrombie over the French at Aboukir, and the sur- 
render by the French of Cairo and Alexandria, brought to 
a close their occupation of Egypt (1801). 

On his return from Egypt, Napoleon overthrew the Di- 
rectory, the executive body of the French republic, and 
took the supreme power into his own hands with the title 
of First Consul (1799). Five years afterwards he 

^ 1/^^ J _ Napoleon 

assumed an imperial crown, and was proclaimed becomes 
emperor of the French. But he was destined ^'"i?®''"'"- 
to win many laurels of military glory before he reached 
that lofty elevation. As soon as he had established his 
power as first consul, he amassed a great army, and en- 
tered upon his career of European conquest. He hum- 
bled Austria to the dust, and compelled her to make a 



320 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

treaty which gave up to France the left bank of the Rhine. 
He formed a close alliance with Russia, Sweden, Denmark, 
and Prussia, and now England was the only power which 
continued to be his adversary. Unfortunately for England, 
William Pitt was no longer at the head of affairs. He had 
desired to relieve the Catholics of their political disabilities, 
and allow them to vote and to be members of Parliament, 
pitfsresig- To this the obstinate old king would not agree, 
nation. and Pitt resigned office (iSoi). He was succeed- 
ed by Henry Addington, whose ministry lasted three years. 

The power of England on the seas was supreme ; and 
it was by her navy that she succeeded in breaking up Na- 
poleon's alliance with the northern powers. The heroic 
Nelson, the greatest of all English admirals, utterly de- 
feated the Danish fleet in the harbor of Copenhagen ; and 
soon after, England made peace with Russia, Denmark, 
and Sweden. Napoleon, too, was ready to come to terms. 
Peace of ^Y thc treaty of Amiens, concluded between 
Amiens. England and France (1802), each power gave up 
some of the conquests they had made. England surren- 
dered the French West Indies, but retained Ceylon and 
Trinidad. France loosed her hold on Malta, Rome, 
and Naples. But this peace was of short duration. Na- 
poleon's restless ambition once more provoked European 
conflict, within a year after the Treaty of Amiens had been 
signed. He seized Elba, invaded northern Italy, and es- 
tablished himself in Switzerland. 

England again declared war against him. Napoleon 

retorted by another vigorous attempt to land an army on 

English shores. The Endish volunteered for 

England ^ ° 

again de- the dcfcncc of the country by hundreds of thou- 
^ r s war. g^j^^g^ 'pj^g incapable cabinet of Addington re- 



WILLIAM PITT. 321 

signed under the pressure of public opinion, and William 
Pitt once more took the helm (1804). Napoleon's plan 
of invading England was frustrated by Villeneuve, one 
of his admirals, who, instead of obeying Napoleon's order 
to proceed with his fleet to the Channel, sailed away to 
Cadiz. There Villeneuve was joined by the Spanish fleet. 
Nelson and Collingwood followed up the enemy with 
twenty-seven English men-of-war, and, in the famous battle 
of Trafalgar, captured twenty French and Span- Battle of 
ish ships, killed the Spanish admiral, and took Trafalgar, 
the French admiral prisoner. But the brave Nelson was 
himself fatally wounded in his heroic attack, and expired 
at the very moment of his splendid victory (Oct. 21, 1805). 
But Napoleon, though discomfited at sea by English 
prowess, pursued his campaign on the continent with daz- 
zling success. Austria and Russia had now become the 
allies of England, and were eager to crush the daring and 
ambitious disturber of the peace of Europe. But Napo- 
leon won a series of rapid victories, the chief of which was 
that of Austerlitz, by v/hich he overcame the combined 
Austrian and Russian armies, occupied Vienna, and com- 
pelled Austria to yield to his terms. At this juncture, 
England's great minister, William Pitt, died (1806). It is 
said that his end was hastened by the crushing Death of 
defeat of his allies at Austerlitz. He was sue- ^^"■ 
ceeded by Lord Grenville, who formed a Whig cabinet, 
which, from the exceptional ability of its members, was 
called the " Cabinet of All the Talents." Its most con- 
spicuous figure was Charles James Fox. But Fox died a 
few months after the cabinet was formed, and soon after 
Lord Grenville gave way to the Duke of Portland and a 
Tory cabinet. 



322 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND . 

Meanwhile Napoleon continued his military triumphs 
with scarcely a check. He overwhelmingly defeated the 
Napoleon's Prussiaus at Jena, and entered Berlin a con- 
triumphs. queror as he had before entered Vienna. He 
issued a decree forbidding all the nations under his con- 
trol from having any dealings with England. He terrified 
Russia into making peace with him, and once more se. 
cured the alliance of Denmark and Sweden. He seemed 
about to have all Europe beneath his feet. England alone 
stood sturdily against him from first to last. Once again 
the English fleet went to the rescue. It bombarded and 
occupied Copenhagen, and carried the Danish fleet cap- 
tive to England. But now the scene of the great war 
changed to the Spanish peninsula. 



CHAPTER LI. 

THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. 

'"T^WO years after the battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon 
-^ found himself almost supreme throughout the conti- 
nent of Europe. He was emperor of the French, and 
kins: of Italy. He was the virtual ruler of Ba- 

'^ •' ^ Napoleon 

varia and Wurtemberg. He had made his suprems in 
brother Joseph king of Naples, and his brother 
Louis king of Holland. Austria, Prussia, and Denmark 
were helpless beneath his power. England and Spain alone 
continued to hold out against his victorious legions and 
his all-grnsping ambition. But the conqueror of so many 
kingdoms and states was not yet satisfied. The dissen- 
sions of the reigning family in Spain gave him an oppor- 
tunity, which he quickly seized, to seek new conquests in 
the Iberian peninsula. He took the Spanish king conquest of 
prisoner, and brought him to France ; and he ^P^i"^- 
elevated his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, who was reignnig 
in Naples, to the Spanish throne (1808). 

The Spanish people were aroused to a fierce resistance 
to this foreign intrusion. They rose everywhere in revolt, 
and appealed to England for aid. England promptly re- 
sponded. An army of ten thousand men was sent to 
Spain, under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley, who 
afterwards became illustrious as the great Duke of Wel- 

323 



324 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

lington. The " Peninsula War," as it was called, raged 
with fury and with varjdng fortunes to the two adversaries 
The penin- ^^Y several years. The French, who had invaded 
suia war. Portugal, were thrice driven from that kingdom, 
and by Wellesley's masterly generalship were at last also 
expelled from Spain. Wellesley won great renown by his 
brilliant victories over the French in the Peninsula War. 
The principal battles in which the English arms were 
triumphant were Corunna — in which Sir John Moore, 
the hero of Wolfe's poem, was killed — (Jan., 1809), 
Talavera (July. 1809), Albuera (May, 181 1), Salamanca 
(July, 1812), and Vittoria (June, 1813). The result of 
the battle of Vittoria was to drive the French forces 
altogether from Spanish soil ; and the house of Bourbon 
was restored to the throne of Spain. 

During the years which were occupied with these great 

wars on the continent, many notable events took place in 

England and in Ireland. One of the most im- 

impeach- pQj-j^^ut was the impeachment of Warren Hast- 



ment of 
Warren 
Hastings 



Warren lugs, thc govemor-gencral of the British empire 



of India. He was arraigned by the Commons 
before the House of Lords, charged with " high crimes 
and misdemeanors " ; and he was acquitted after a weari- 
some trial which lasted for more than seven years (1788- 
1795). After the conquests of Clive, the rule of the Eng- 
lish in India had rapidly spread over many principalities 
The English and provinces of that vast Asiatic country, 
in India. cVwe himsclf had subdued the great states 
of Bengal, Orissa, and Bahar ; and Warren Hastings, 
who was a man of rare ability and energy, had carried 
the dominion and the influence of the English much 
further. The powers of the East India Company were in 



THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. 325 

many cases abused, and were found to have grown too 
formidable ; and Parliament passed laws restricting its 
powers, establishing a " Board of Control " in London 
with authority over the company, and transferring the 
political rule of India to the home government (1784). 
The governors-general who succeeded Hastings continued 
to extend the area of the English dominion, fought many 
wars with the native princes, and at last established the su- 
premacy of English power and influence throughout India. 
The long oppression of the Irish by England resulted, 
towards the close of the eighteenth century, in a series of 
stirrino- events. The cruel and unjust " penal 

. . . . . Oppres- 

laws," passed in the reigns of William the Third sionofire- 
and Anne, still weighed heavily upon the vast 
majority of the Irish people. By their provisions, no 
Roman Catholic could vote, or sit in Parliament, or hold 
any civil or military trust. Other laws forbade Catholics 
from pursuing certain avocations. The restrictions on 
Irish trade well nigh stifled the commerce and industries 
of the island. Even education was hampered, and almost 
forbidden, in Ireland The landlords, many of them Eng- 
lish by descent, treated their tenants with remorseless 
cruelty, and wrung their earnings from them with unblush- 
ing greed. The Irish national spirit was at last aroused 
by these accumulated tyrannies. A force of forty thou- 
sand volunteers from every part of Ireland was enrolled ; 
and the English government, in the face of such ti^^ i^ish 
an array, conceded some points to Irish de- volunteers. 
mands. The laws which hampered Irish trade, and the 
Test Act, were abrogated; and a strenuous effort was 
made by the Whigs to relieve the Irish of their political 
disabilities. 



326 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

These concessions emboldened the Irish patriot leaders 
to go a step further. Foremost among these leaders was 
the eloquent and upright Henry Grattan. He demanded 
that Ireland should be altogether freed from the control 
Grattan's o^ ^^c English Parliament, and that the Irish 
Parliament. ParHament alone should make laws for Ireland 
(1782). The demand came at a time when the English 
cabinet was perplexed by many difficulties ; and it was 
conceded. For a short time Ireland was practically free. 
Her Parliament had real power, and was sustained by the 
formidable force of volunteers. But the Irish Protestants 
were not yet willing that the Roman Catholic majority 
should have votes or sit in Parliament. Internal discus- 
sion soon brought about confusion in Irish affairs. Mean- 
while the attempts of Pitt to bring about a union between 
Ireland and Great Britain were strenuously opposed by 
Grattan and Curran, the chiefs of the Irish patriot party. 
The volunteers disappeared, and in a few years a new or- 
Agitation gauization, called " the Society of United Irish- 
in Ireland, ^^eu," was formcd for the purpose of separating 
Ireland from Great Britain altogether. This body not 
only stirred up agitation among the people, but appealed 
to the French to come to Ireland and establish a republic 
like their own. 

The French accordingly despatched a fleet of twenty- 
eight ships and fifteen thousand troops to the Irish coast ; 
but the ships separated in the fog, and were forced by a 
storm to seek refuge again in French harbors (1796)0 The 
Irish were now thrown upon their own resources. A 
scheme for a general revolt was matured, and committees 
were formed to put it into execution. One member of 
the committee at Dublin was a brave young Protestant, 



THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. 32/ 

Lord Edward Fitzgerald. The English authorities got 
wind of the scheme, and arrested the Dublin -jhe irish 
committee. Lord Edward resisted the officers, Rebellion. 
and in the conflict was mortally wounded. Southern and 
eastern Ireland were soon in arms. Martial law was pro- 
claimed, and many desperate and bloody struggles ensued, 
in which cruelties were committed on both sides. Finally 
the Irish were decisively defeated by the superior num- 
bers and discipline of the British troops at Vinegar Hill. 
They had fou2:ht valiantly, but the odds a2:ainst 

^ -^ -" . * Battle of 

them had been overwhelming from the first. vinegar 
Their leaders were hung, and many of the Irish 
prisoners were ruthlessly killed with pikes ; and once 
more England visited Irish revolt from her rule with 
blood-thirsty retaliation (1798). 

A second attempt of the French to land troops in Ire- 
land ignominiously failed, and several of their ships were 
captured; and Wolfe Tone, one of the Irish chiefs, who 
was captured on board a French man-of-war, was con- 
demned to be hung. But he committed suicide in jail. 
William Pitt, the English prime minister, now resolved 
that he would press his project of a complete legislative 
union between Ireland and Great Britain to an 
issue. He succeeded in obtaining his end by of ireiaiT 
cajolinof, bribin":, and overawinsf members of the ^**^ Great 

y *' ^' » Britain. 

Irish House of Commons. The " Act of 
Union," was finally adopted by both the British and the 
Irish Parliament. The Irish Parliament ceased to exist, 
and Irish representatives were admitted to both Houses 
of the British Parliament. Twenty-eight Irish peers, 
elected for life, and four Irish Episcopal bishops, took 
their seats in the House of Lords, and Ireland was allowed 



328 YOUNG people's ENGLAND, 

one hundred members in the House of Commons. There 
thus came about the '' United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland " ; and the legislative union thus formed be- 
tween the two islands has continued down to this day. 

Another important event of the period during which 

the Napoleonic wars were raging on the continent, w^as the 

agitation to abolish the trading in slaves by 

agaiust°the Englishmen, and to do away with slavery itself 

Slave throusfhout the dominions of England. This 

Trade. ^ * 

agitation was begun and vigorously pursued by 
that great and good man, William Wilberforce. In his 
noble cause Wilberforce was aided and encouraged by 
William Pitt, and later by Fox ; and he at last succeeded 
in carrying a bill through Parliament, abolishing the in- 
human traffic in slaves (1806). But nearly thirty years 
Abolition of ^^'^I'e yet to elapse before slavery was abolished 
Slavery. j^-^ j|-^g British colonies. This humane reform 
was finally achieved, and received the sanction of Parlia- 
ment in the very year of Wilberforce's death (1833). 
From that time, every human being who stepped upon 
British ground, the world over, became thereby free. 

After the death of Charles James Fox, and the fall of 
the " Cabinet of All the Talents," the Tories came into 
power under the Duke of Portland (1807); and from that 
Power of time the Tories remained continuously in office 
tile Tories. £qj. ^j-^g iQj-,g period of twcuty-four years. The 
Duke of Portland, after a premiership of three years, gave 
place to Spencer Perceval (1810). Soon after, George 
the Third became hopelessly insane. His disorder was 
aggravated by the fatal illness of his favorite daughter, 
the Princess Amelia. It became evident that the king 
had no longer the capacity to reign, and a regency was es- 



THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. 329 

tablished with George, Prince of Wales, the king's eldest 
son, as regent. Parliament surrounded him with certain 
restrictions. The care of the insane monarch ^.^e Regen- 
was consigned to the queen, and to her also was ''^■ 
committed the control of the royal household. The re- 
gent assumed the royal power, and from that time George 
the Third virtually ceased to reign (February, 181 1). 

A little more than a year after this notable event, Spen- 
cer Perceval, the prime minister, was assassinated in the 
lobby of the House of Commons by a madman named 
Bellingham (18 12). The next prime minister was the 
Earl of Liverpool, who remained at the head of affairs for 
the unusually long period of fifteen years. The prince 
regent, who afterwards reigned as George the Fourth, 
was tail and nnposing in personal appearance, heartless, 
dissolute, selfish, pompous in manner, arbitrary ^he prince 
m his political ideas, and not gifted with more ^^gent. 
than an ordinary intellect. In early manhood he had 
favored the Whigs, rather from a spirit of hostility to his 
father than from honest conviction. When he became 
regent however, he deserted his old Whisf friends, and 
gave his confidence to the Tories, whom he continued to 
cherish until his death. 

The year in which the regency was formed (18 12), was 
signalized by the begmrimg of the second war between 
England and the United States, and by the 
opening of the last act in the Napoleonic wars wTr°with 
on the continent ot Europe. The American *^® united 

^ states. 

war was brought about by certain '' Orders in 
Council ' which England issued, m order to prevent 
English commerce from being transferred to the ships 
of other nations while the European conflict was going 



330 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

on. These orders sought to compel all ships on the 
way to blockaded ports to touch at English ports. 
The Americans had already been offended by the right 
claimed by England to board American vessels, and 
" search " them for escaped English mariners. To the 
Orders in Council the United States retorted with a 
" Non-Intercourse Act," by which all commerce between 
England and the United States was suspended. England 
was preparing to withdraw the orders, when the United 
States declared war. 

The first battles between the two powers were naval 

ones, and resulted in a succession of victories by the 

American men-of-war. These were followed up 

American 

naval victo- by a land campaign, in which Toronto and Upper 
Canada were occupied by American troops, and 
an English flotilla in Lake Erie was annihilated. The 
tide of war then turned for a while in favor of the Eng- 
lish. Upper Canada was re-occupied, and later a British 
force captured Washington and burned its public build- 
ings. But in the end the Americans triumphed. An 
English attack on Plattsburgh, on Lake Champlain, was 
repulsed, and General Jackson successfully defended New 
Orleans from the assault of General Packen- 

The battle 

of New Or- ham. The causes of the war had now disap- 
peared, and peace was concluded between the 
two powers by the treaty of Ghent (1814), General 
Jackson's victory of New Orleans, indeed, was gained 
several months after the treaty was signed, but before 
news of it had reached the L^nited States. 

All this while Napoleon had been pursuing his career of 
conquest. He had established his authority over many of 
tte smaller German states, and had made his brother. 



THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. 33 1 

Jerome, king of Westphalia. England, Russia, and Sweden 
had made an alliance a^^ainst him. The very 

° . ■' Alliance 

week in which the United States declared war against Na- 
against England, Napoleon set out upon his in- ^° ^°'^' 
vasion of the Russian Empire (18 12). This expedition 
was destined to be the turning point of his career. He 
advanced as far as Moscow ; but that city was burned by 
the Russians themselves ; and Napoleon was forced to 
retreat through a dreary and hostile country in the dead 
of winter. His splendid army was decimated by cold 
and hunger, and in the following summer he suffered an 
overwhelming defeat at Leipsic. He retreated 
into France, followed by his enemies, Paris fell an/a^di- 
before their assault (March, 18 14), and Napo- ^^"°^g°^ 
leon, abdicating his throne, retired to the island 
of Elba. The allies thereupon restored the Bourbons 
to the French throne, in the person of Louis the Eigh- 
teenth. 

In less than a year Napoleon suddenly broke forth from 
his island retreat, landed in France, and, joined at every 
step by multitudes of his old soldiers, once more entered 
Paris in triumph. The Bourbon king fled, and Napoleon 
resumed his imperial crown. He now gathered up his 
resources for a terrific and final conflict. The English 
and Prussians joined their forces to encounter him. Ar- 
thur Wellesley, now Duke of Wellington, and the most 
renowned of living English generals, took the command 
in Belgium, the rendezvous of the allied forces. The two 
armies met in deadly conflict at Waterloo (Tune, 

■' \J 1 .pjjg battle 

1815) ; Napoleon was utterly defeated, and made of water- 
all haste to regain Paris. He once more abdi- 
cated the throne, and delivered himself up to the com- 



332 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

mander of an English man-of-war. His victors there- 
upon consigned him to the remote and lonely island 
of St. Helena, where he remained in captivity for the 
rest of his life. The allied armies entered Paris, and 
Louis the Eighteenth again returned to the throne of his 
ancestors. 



CHAPTER LIL 

PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE, 

THE progress of the English people during the one 
hundred and eighteen years included in the reigns 
of Anne and the first three Georges (1702-1820) was very 
marked and rapid. In political progress they advanced 
steadily towards complete popular self-government. The 
powers both of the crown and of the great fami- increase of 
lies became more and more restricted, and the t^e power 

' of the peo- 

representatives of the nation acquired the au- pie. 
thority taken from the other two estates. The severity of 
the criminal laws was gradually relaxed, and public opin- 
ion became constantly broader, more humane, and more 
enlightened. In literature, in the useful and ornamental 
arts, in science and invention, in the comfort and conveni- 
ences of living, in industrial improvement and growth, in 
commercial prosperity, and in the settlement of English 
colonies in distant regions, the progress of the English dur- 
ing the eighteenth century was far greater than it had been 
for several centuries before. 

The reign of Queen Anne is only less celebrated for its 
brilliant literary products than is that of Elizabeth. It 
was adorned by poets like Addison, Pope, and 

T^. . Ti r-,To 1 iT->T Literature. 

Prior; essayists like Swift, bteele, and Eoling- 

broke ; philosophers like John Locke ; writers of fiction like 

233 



334 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

De Foe ; wits like Arbuthnot ; and theologians like Atter- 
bury and South. The succession of able writers was con- 
tinuous through the eighteenth century. In its earlier 
half, Young, Thomson, Samuel Johnson, Gay, Akenside, 
and Gray appeared as poets; Fielding, Smollett, Richard- 
son, and Sterne as novelists; 'and Hervey and Walpole as 
writers of delightful memoirs. The first half of George 
the Third's reign produced Percy, Goldsmith, Hume, Rob- 
ertson, Adam Smith, Hannah More, Gibbon, Burke, and 
Sheridan. The latter part of the same reign saw the rise 
of a splendid galaxy of literary genius. Of these the most 
eminent as poets were Burns, Cowper, Crabbe, Rogers, 
Scott, V/ordsworth, Byron, Southey, Coleridge, Moore, 
Shelley, Campbell, and Keats ; as essayists, Hazlitt, Leigh 
Hunt, Brougham, Lamb, De Quincey, Wilson, Croker, and 
Sydney Smith ; as historians, Godwin, Burney, and Scott ; 
as writers of fiction, Maria Edgeworth, Jane Austen, Fanny 
Burney; as theologians, Paley, Chalmers, Edward Irving, 
and Robert Hall ; as economists, Mill, Matthews, and 
Ricardo. 

In the course of the eighteenth century, newspapers 
very rapidly increased in numbers and circulation through- 
Newspa- C)ut England ; and the influence of the press was 
pers. constantly growing. Not only did daily and 

weekly newspapers multiply rapidly, but periodical essay- 
writing, the example of which had been set by Addison in 
the " Spectator," became fashionable, and maga- 

Magazines. • ■, • . , . ^ rr^, 

zmes and reviews came mto existence. Ihe 
"Gentleman's Magazine," the first of its kind, made its 
appearance early in the reign of George the Second 
(1731); and within ten years eight magazines were es- 
tablisked in London. Literary reviews began to spring 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 335 

up about the middle of the eighteenth century ; and early 
in the nineteenth, the great English quarterlies, of which 
the " Edinburgh Review " was the earliest, were founded. 
Circulating libraries and book-clubs were formed, and 
gradually spread to many parts of the kingdom. PoHtical 
caricatures came into fashion in the time of Queen Anne, 
and had become a familiar and effective art in the Litter 
part of the eighteenth century. The results of the 
spread of newspapers, pamphlets, and magazines on the 
education of the English, during the period of which 
we are speaking, cannot be easily estimated ; but the 
press had certainly become one of the most potent agen- 
cies in the intellectual and jDolitical progress of the 
people. /•' 

The middle of the eighteenth century was the period of 
a great revolution in the arts in England. Up to that 
time, England had not produced a single great 
painter, and but one eminent musical composer. 
All the famous painters, who, in previous times, had 
adorned with their works the walls of English palaces, 
castles, and noble mansions, had been of foreign birth. 
The first native English artist of unquestioned geni-as was 
Vv^illiam Hogarth, who rose to fame in the early years of 
George the Second. Hogarth was speedily followed by 
many native painters of conspicuous talent. Wilson, the 
earliest English landscape-painter of the first rank, and 
Barry, the first notable historical painter, flourished in the 
generation succeeding that of Hogarth. After them came 
Sir Joshua Reynolds, Gainsborough, Copley, and West 
(the two last, Americans by birth) ; and Lawrence, Wilkie, 
and Turner became eminent as painters early in the nine- 
teenth century. 



33^ YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

The first exhibition of English works of art was held in 
Hogarth's time (1740); and twenty-one years later, the 
Art esbibi- custom of holding annual exhibitions of such 
tions. works was established. Seven years after the 

first annual exhibition, the Royal Academy was founded, 
with Sir Joshua Reynolds as its first president (1768). 
Water-color painting came into vogue towards the close of 
the eighteenth century (1790). The English made marked 
progress in other branches of art during the period of the 
first three Georges. Lithography was introduced, and 
Strange, Sharpe, and Woollett became eminent as engrav- 
ers, while Gillray carried off the palm as a caricature 
artist. In sculpture. Banks and Flaxman, and later, Chan- 
trey and Westmacott, produced works of high and endur- 
ing value ; while in the art of pottery, Wedgewood had 
established the works which still produce ornaments for 
Architec- the homes of two continents. The arts of archi- 
ture and lecture and eno-ineerins: also made a considerable 

engineer- ^ ^ 

ing. advance. It was in the eighteenth century that the 

first modern canals were built in England, and that many 
of the finest bridges were constructed. That century was 
also notable for the extensive reclamation of waste lands 
throughout the country, and the consequent increase of 
farming and graznig domains ; while many improvements 
were made, during its 'course, in the methods and appli- 
ances of agriculture. 

The period of the three Georges showed more astonish- 
ing results in science, invention, and industrial progress, 
perhaps, than in any other fields of human labor. 

Science i i ? j 

and inven- It produccd Herschcl, the greatest English as- 
tronomer, Jenner, who discovered vaccination, 
Sir Humphrey Davy, and Dalton. It was an era of the 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 33/ 

jnost prolific and varied triumphs of mechanical invention. 
Kay, Hargreaves, Crompton, Arkwright, and Cartwright 
brought the manufacture of cotton goods by machinery to 
a high degree of excellence. Watt made the steam-engine, 
a machine of almost unlimited power. The art of smelt- 
ing iron by pit-coal was invented. Davy devised the 
safety-lamp. Navio^ation by steam was proved 

. steam nav- 

to be practicable (181 1); and printing by steam igation and 
was first accomplished by John Walter, of the p""*^"^- 
" London Times " (1814). There was, indeed, no indus- 
try, no occupation of life, which did not reap great benefits 
from the genius and labors of inventors. They not only 
gave new powers to English industries, but they added 
very many comforts, refinements, and luxuries to English 
households. 

The eighteenth century witnessed two great religious 
revivals in England, which awoke the people from the re- 
ligious torpor and the recklessness of conduct which had 
followed the restoration of the Stuarts. In the early part 
of the century, great masses of the English were deplora- 
bly Ignorant ; the popular sports were rude and brutal, 
such as bull-baiting, prize-fighting, and cock- Religious 
fighting ; few churches were built, and there revivals, 
were no Sunday-schools ; and intemperance and gam- 
bling had become alarmingly prevalent among all classes. 
Several able, eloquent, and ardent clergymen, witnessing 
the deplorable condition of public morals, were inspired 
to rouse the people from their degradation. Chief among 
these were the brothers, Charles and John Wesley, and 
George Whitefield. They went from place to place, 
preaching the gospel, praying fervently, and exhorting 
their hearers to a more religious life. Their ardor and 



338 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

eloquence created intense excitement wherever they ap- 
peared ; and they succeeded in infusing a new religious 
fervor among great masses of men. 

These revivals had many beneficent results upon the 
character and condition of the people. Hospitals and 
other benevolent institutions were founded by large- 
hearted benefactors. Foundling Hospital was estab- 
lished by Coram (1739), and his example was followed by 
many philanthrophists and societies as the cen- 

Charitable -^ ^ ^ 

institu- tury advanced. Charitable men and women 
*'°'^^' looked into the needs of the poor, and busied 

themselves with lightening their miseries. Schools were 
opened here and there for pauper children, and' Sunday- 
schools were established (1781). It became the custom 
of ladies of rank to tend the sick poor. John Howard, 
one of the noblest men England has ever produced, en- 
tered upon the humane work of reforming the prisons, and 
converting them from loathsome dens into places decent 
for the habitation of human, beings (1775). The severity 
of the criminal law was relax.ed, and early in the nine- 
teenth century, Bentham and Romilly succeeded in bring- 
ing about the substitution of milder punishments for small 
offences, which formerly incurred the penalty of death. 

The social life and customs of the English of every 

rank passed through many changes in the period between 

the death of Anne and the death of George the 

Social life . , . * . 

and cus- Third. Among the fashions which sprang up in 
°'^^' the early part of this period were the tastes for 

East India calicos for ladies' dresses, for rare porcelains 
and pottery, for collecting pictures, and for creating ele- 
gant and artistic gardens. As the century advanced, the 
art of gardening became more and more cultivated, and 



PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 339 

plants and flowers were introduced from every part of the 
world. The taste of the English for music, too, was 
rapidly developed in this period; although England pro- 
duced no great native composer throughout its course, 
Handel took up his residence in London, and Taste for 
exercised a powerful influence in creating a love ^^sic. 
for music of the highest order. Both Italian 'opera and 
comic opera were popular and fashionable amusements, 
and the drama flourished to a degree never before known. 
A taste for Shakespeare's plays revived towards the mid- 
dle of the eighteenth century, and they were reproduced 
on the stage with signal success. 

The custom of repairing to inland watering-places grew 
to be almost universal with the upper classes in the course 
of the eighteenth century ; but it \vas not until the middle 
of that century that sea-bathing and seaside resorts be- 
came popular. The country gentlemen indulged country 
in pretty much the same fleld^ports as had sports, 
their ancestors. Fox, hare, and deer-hunting w^ere the 
favorite rural recreations. Cricket took its place as a 
popular national game towards the close of the century. 
Life in the English rural districts became more refined as 
better systems of roads were built, and as locomotion 
from place to place, became more easy and more safe 
from the attacks of highwaymen. Country squires went 
oftener to London and to the country towns, and country 
society became more susceptible to the influence of the 
press, literature, and the public opinion of the great cen- 
tres. Yet the landed class clung obstinately to The landed 
the political precepts of Toryism, bitterly -op- '=1^^^®^- 
posed reforms and changes, and maintained an unswerving 
allegiance to the Church of England. 



340 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

The condition of the laboring classes perceptibly and 
on the whole steadily improved during the Georgian era. 
Wages advanced and the quality of the food of working- 
people became better. Wheat, for instance, was used in 
the making of bread, instead of rye and barley. In the 
latter part of the eighteenth century, it was found that the 
average pay of the English farm laborer was 
o°the^°'^ seventy-six per cent better than that of the 
working same class in France. The invention of ma- 

classes. 

chinery for use in various industries, and its 
substitution for hand labor, was long very unfavorable to 
the prosperity of artisans ; while the reclamation of waste 
lands in many rural districts deprived the poor country 
folk of their rights of free pasture, and enriched the 
landlord at the expense of the peasant. But the fact re- 
mains that the condition of the English laborer, whether 
artisan or tiller of the soil, was far better in every way in 
1820 than it had been a century before. 



CHAPTER LIII. 

/ GEORGE THE FOURTH. 

THE downfall of Napoleon restored peace to Europe. 
A congress of the great powers met at Vienna, and 
proceeded to divide up Napoleon's conquests, to replace 
the princes whom he had deposed, and to re-establish the 
boundaries which he had disturbed. The broth- 

The con- 

ers of Napoleon no longer reigned in the king- gress of 
doms over which he had placed them, and each 
power recovered the dominions which Napoleon had seized. 
England was permitted to keep Malta, Ceylon, the Cape 
of Good Hope, Mauritius, and several West India islands, 
which she had won by her naval victories. But the period 
which succeeded the close of the war was one of exhaus- 
tion, distress, and agitation in England. The huge cost of 
the long struggle had carried the English public debt up 
to the enormous figure of ^800,000, oco ($4,000,000,000). 
The taxation to pay the war expenses weighed heavily 
upon the masses of the people. Wheat and 

Burden- 
other bread-stuffs had risen to ruinous prices ; some taxa- 

and this evil was intensilied by the selfish action 
of the great land-owners, who caused a law to be passed 
forbidding the introduction into England of foreign bread- 
stuffs (18 1 5). 

Five years after the battle of Waterloo, the aged and 
341 



342 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

insane king, George the Third, died, after an unprece- 
dented reign of sixty years (1820). He was succeeded by 
his eldest son, the regent, who ascended the throne as 
George the Fourth. Tne reign of this selfish, dissolute, and 
heartless king lasted for ten years (1820-1830). The 
period covered by his rule was one of external peace ; 
but it was disturbed by constant internal agitation, and 
Internal agi- some disordcrs. The dread which had been in- 
tation. spired in England by the excesses of the French 

Revolution had to a large degiee subsided. On many 
sides there rose a cry for reforms in the laws. The dis- 
tress of the lower classes, caused partly by the high price 
of food, partly by the rapid substitution of new machinery 
for hand labor, and partly by the increase of the laboring 
population, resulted here and there in serious riots, which 
had to be suppressed by military force. Bold political 
leaders, like Sir Francis Burdett, and able economists, 
like Jeremy Bentham, clamored for such changes in the 
laws as would give the people a better chance to live in 
comfort, and a larger share in the government of the 
country. 

Two events of serious import happened in the first 
year of George the Fourth's reign. George had long 
been married to a German princess, Caroline of Bruns- 
wick, whom he heartily detested. She had borne him a 
daughter, the Princess Charlotte, who had died in young 
womanhood. George now brought his queen to trial be- 
fore the House of Lords, on a charge of un- 

Trial of , 5 o 

Queen Car- f aitMulncss. Thc masscs of the people took 
° '^^' the queen's side. The attempt of the king to 

convict Caroline failed, and Parliament granted her a 
large annuity. When the king was crowned, Caroline 



GEORGE THE FOURTH. 343 

attempted to force her way into Westminster Abbey, where 
tlie coronation was taking place. Failing in this, she died 
in a few days of grief and chagrin. These occurrences 
made the king extremely unpopular, and he never after 
succeeded in winning the respect or affection of his sub- 
jects. In the same year a plot was discovered to murdtr 
the leading members of the cabinet. A band of desper- 
ate men, led by an ex-army officer, Arthur Thistle wood, 
determined to kill the ministers while they v/ere din:ng 
with Lord Harrowby. The conspirators met in a 
loft in Cato Street, whence their plot is known as street con- 
the " Cato-Street Conspiracy." The police made ^P^^^^^y- 
a descent upon them on the eve of their setting out to 
accomplish their purpose. Five of the conspirators, m- 
cluding Thistlewood, were hung, and five others were 
transported for life. 

To the cry for reform which became every year more gen- 
eral and more persistent, the Tory cabinet always turned a 
deaf ear. They ruled in an arbitrar}^ spirit, rejected 
every proposal to change the constitution or laws, and re- 
fused to relieve the people of their burdens and disabili- 
ties. Two reforms, especially, were demanded by a con- 
stantly growing public opinion. These were 
the abolition of the laws which had deprived and^eco^ 
the Roman Catholics of their political and social ^^^^^ ^^• 

^ forms. 

rights for many generations, and the repeal or 
lessening of the duties levied upon bread-stuffs and other 
articles brought into England from abroad. The ques- 
tion of " Catholic emancipation " had long been agitated. 
Early in the century William Pitt himself, Tory as he was, 
had tried to do the Catholics justice. But both George 
the Third and George the Fourth, the House of Lords, 



344 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 

most of the Tory leaders, and the great body of the aris- 
tocratic and landed classes, had stoutly opposed the repeal 
of the unjust penal laws from first to last. 

The Irish Roman Catholics had suffered most griev- 
ously of all from the oppression of these laws. Nearly 
five sixths of the population of Ireland were 

The Irish ^ ^ 

Roman Romau Catholics. Yet they were debarred 
from all offices, from the right to vote or to sit 
in Parliament, from the possession of arms for purposes 
of defence, and from the guardianship or education of 
Protestant children. Even these disabilities do not de- 
, scribe all the tyrannies to which the law still subjected 
the Irish Catholics. At last the cause of Catholic eman- 
cipation found a friend and advocate in George Canning, 
the ablest member of the Tory cabinet; and so strong 
was his influence in its favor, that he succeeded in car- 
Georgecan- O^i'"*? ^ bill of rclicf to the Catholics through 
"^'^s- the House of Commons (1825). But the bill 

was rejected by the House of Lords. On the death of 
the Earl of Liverpool, after a premiership of fifteen years, 
Canning became prime minister ; but he died in a few 
months (1827), and thus the cause of emancipation lost 
its most powerful adherent. Canning was succeeded by 
Lord Goderich, whose tenure of office was also short-lived, 
and then a powerful Tory cabinet was formed, with the 
Duke of Wellington at its head (1828). 

Meanwhile Ireland had become profoundly agitated on 
the subject of Catholic emancipation. A '* Catholic As- 
sociation " was formed throughout the island, and the 
Agitation in Insh fouud a powerful and eloquent leader of 
Ireland. ^j^^-j. ^^^^^ j^ Dauicl O'Conncll. The Duke 
of Wellington, although a strong Tory, was yet a wise 



GEORGE THE FOURTH. 345 

and judicious statesman. • He perceived that if he did 
not yield to the overwhehning force of public opinion in 
favor of the relief of Catholics, a bloody civil war would 
probably ensue. At the risk of breaking up his party, 
the duke at last proposed a bill which admitted Roman 
Catholics to Parliament, and did away with all political 
distinctions between Catholics and Protestants. 

Catholic 

The bill was passed, and became a law ; and emancipa- 
thus many of the old iniquitous laws which had 
so long oppressed the Catholics were swept away. The 
Catholic Association of Ireland had achieved its end, 
and peaceably dissolved ; and O'Conncll took his seat in 
the House of Commons (1829). 

Some progress was also made in commercial reform 
during the reign of George the Fourth. Both Canning 
and his friend, Thomas Huskisson (who was also in the 
ministry), labored to lighten the oppression of heavy taxa- 
tion and of high duties. An old law forbade commercial 
the bringing of almost all foreign goods into ^^^form. 
England in any but English ships. This raised the price 
of freights, and consequently of the goods themselves. 
A measure was carried through Parliament by Huskisson 
which made the duty on all goods equal, whether car- 
ried by English or by foreign ships (1823). The high du- 
ties on foreign silk and on foreign wool were also materi- 
ally reduced. The result of these measures was to 
greatly stimulate English trade, and, to some extent at 
least, to lessen the hardships of the laboring classes. 
But a spirit of reckless speculation became rife, and was 
followed by a severe financial crash (1825). 

Although England remained at peace with the powers 
during George's reign, and for many years after, she did 



34^ YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

not cease to lake an interest in the affairs of foreign na- 
Foreign poi- tions. A large portion of the English people 
^^^- sympathized with the struggle of the Greeks to 

free themselves from Turkish rule, and the poet Byron 
went to Greece to fight for their liberty. The English 
government also recognized the independence of the 
Spanish countries in South America, and sent soldiers to 
protect Portugal from the aggressions of the French. 
Later, the English actively interfered in behalf of the 
Greeks. England, Russia, and France sent a combined 
fleet into the Eastern Mediterranean, and after a furious 
naval battle destroyed the fleet which the viceroy of Egypt 
had brought to the sultan's aid. In the following year a 
treaty was concluded, by which the independence of 
Greece was secured (1828). 

George the Fourth died at the age of sixty-eight, and 
was succeeded by his brother, William, Duke of Clar- 
Death of eucc, the third son of George the Third (1830). 
George IV. William the Fourth was a rather dull, plain, 
elderly man, who had long been an officer in the navy, 
and was liked by the people because of his fondness 
for the sea. In one respect he greatly differed from his 
brother, the late king. He was willing to do whatever 
a majority of his subjects demanded, and to yield to the 
reforms upon which their hearts were set. Within two 
months after William came to the throne, the second 
French revolution broke out. After a conflict of three 
days, Charles the Tenth, the last Bourbon king, w^as driven 
from his throne, and Louis Philippe, Duke of 
French rev- Orlcaus, was made king of the French. This 
oiution. eveiit ^vas regarded with much sympathy by the 
English, and had some nifluence m hastening the adop- 



i 



GEORGE THE FOURTH. 34/ 

tion of the great political reform, which, within two years, 
gave a far more representative character to the House of 
Commons than it had ever had before. 

The House of Commons had long been superior in 
power to either the crown or the House of Lords. No 
cabinet had in recent times been able to keep office in 
the face of an adverse vote of the Commons. _ ^^ 

The House 

In that House resided the sole authority to origi- of com- 

, ... . , , , mons. 

nate money bills, to raise the revenue, and to say 
how it should be spent. It held the purse-strings of the 
nation, and this gave it irresistible power. But the House 
of Commons did not very completely represent the people. 
Many of its members were chosen by small boroughs, 
which were controlled by noblemen, land-owners, or 
other wealthy men, who dictated to the boroughs which 
candidates they should choose. On the other Rotten bor- 
hand, many large and growing towns, with nu- °"shs. 
merous populations, either had no representatives in the 
House at all, or only as many members as the small and 
insignificant boroughs. A large town like Birmingham, 
for instance, would have no more members than a little 
village with less than a hundred voters. 

The need of so changing the electoral system as to make 
the representation of the people more real, fair, and equal, 
had in course of time become very pressing. William 
Pitt had made an earnest attempt, but in vain, to carry 
such a reform into effect. The cause had then slept for 
many years. During the reign of George the Fourth, how- 
ever, a fresh asfitation in its favor had grown up, 

^ fc> r? Agitation 

and the Whigs had adopted Parliamentary re- for eiecto- 
form as a party cry. At last the nation itself ""^ ""^ °'^™* 
had become converted to it, and the time had arrived, 



348 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

in the very first year of William's reign, when the consid- 
eration of it could no longer be postponed. A new elec- 
tion gave the Whigs, for the first time in a quarter of a 
century, a majority in the House of Commons (1830). 
The Duke of Wellington, the Tory prime minister, refused 
to assent to the passage of a reform bill. He was defeated 
Earl Grey's ^^^ ^hc Housc, and was succccded by Earl Grey 
cabinet. ^^^(^ ^ Whig Cabinet. In this cabinet were seve- 
ral very able men. Brougham was lord chancellor, Al- 
thorp chancellor of the exchequer, Palmerston foreign 
minister, and Lord John Russell paymaster of the forces. 

Early in the following year, the first reform bill was 
laid before the new House of Commons by Lord John 
Russell. It proposed to take away their members from 
sixty " rotten boroughs" (as the small boroughs controlled 
by the nobility and great land-owners were called) ; to 
reduce the number of members representing forty-seven 
other boroughs from two to one ; to give London eight 
more members than it before had ; and to transfer the 
The reform niembcrs taken from the boroughs to certain 
feiii- large towns, which had hitherto been wholly 

unrepresented in Parliament. The bill, besides, added 
sixty-four members to the quota previously allowed to 
the counties. This bill, after a long and bitter debate, 
passed its second reading in the House of Commons by 
one majority. But shortly after, a vote really hostile to 
it was carried by a majority of eight. L^pon this. Earl 
Grey dissolved Parliament, and a new election was or- 
Triumph of dcrcd. Thc agitation which ensued throughout 
the Whigs, ^j-^g country was intense. The people were now 
fully aroused to the necessity of the reform, and were 
determined that it should be achieved. The elections re- 




TUMULT IN THE HOUSE OF LORDS. — Page 34S. 



GEORGE THE FOURTH. 349 

suited in a large majority in its favor; and no sooner did 
the new House meet than a fresh reform bill was promptly 
introduced. 

Once more the struggle over the bill was protracted 
and acrimonious. Its opponents used every resource and 
artifice to prevent its passage. But when the House 
finally voted, the bill was carried by a majority of one hun- 
dred and six. It went up to the House of Lords, where it 
was thrown out by a majority of forty-one. The indigna- 
tion aroused by this action of the Lords threatened to 
result in a revolution. Riots took place in different 
parts of the country. The house of the Duke of Welling- 
ton in London was assailed by an angry mob. Lords 
were attacked in the streets, and bishops were collision 
burned in effi^v- The Whig: cabinet persisted between 

o-' ^ ^ Lords and 

in its purpose, and introduced a third bill, which commons, 
passed the House of Commons by a larger majority than 
before. Again a hostile amendment was carried in the 
Lords. The excitement in the country rose to a yet more 
perilous height; and Earl Grey and his colleagues re 
signed office. 

But the time had come when the House of Lords must 
choose between accepting the reform, being flooded with 
a large number of new peers, and provoking civil war. The 
Tories failed to form a cabinet, and Earl Grey returned to 
power. The Lords at last sullenly yielded, and 

^ , . PassagJ of 

accepted the bill ; the king signed it, and it took the reform 
its place among the laws of the land (June, 
1832), The general result of this great measure, which 
has immortalized the names of its authors, was to give far 
greater political power to the middle classes, to lessen in 
a corresponding degree that of the aristocracy, and to 



350 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

make the House of Commons reflect far more correctly 
the will of the English people. It gave many large towns 
a voice in the House for the first time, and took a long 
step towards abolishing the unfair system of " rotten bor- 
oughs." It paved the way, moreover, for a number of 
Results of further reforms, by which, in the course of time, 
reform. nearly the entire body of the English people were 
admitted to the right to vote for members of Parliament ; 
as well as for many other measures for benefiting and ele- 
vating the subjects of the English crown. 



CHAPTER LIV. 

VICTORIA. 

WILLIAM the Fourth lived five years after the final 
passage of the Reform Bill. During that period a 
number of good laws were passed, and the condition of 
the people was improved in several ways. The Irish had 
long justly complained of the abuses which had grown up 
in the Irish church, which was Episcopalian, and had 
been established over Ireland as the national 

Reforms 

church. Some of these abuses were now miti- under wn- 
gated. The stipends of the higher clergy were 
reduced, and their number was diminished. The monop- 
oly of the East India Company in the trade of India was 
taken away from it, and England's great Asiatic depend- 
ency was thrown open to all merchants. Slavery in the 
English colonies was finally abolished. The poor-law 
was changed so that paupers were no longer sent back to 
the parishes where they were born for support ; work- 
houses were erected in many parts of the king- RsHefoftiie 
dom ; the governments of the cities and towns ^°°^- 
were reformed, so as to lessen the influence of local mag- 
nates, and give the people a more direct share in the man- 
agement of their local affairs ; a general registration of 
births, marriages, and deaths was established ; the taxes 
on newspapers were reduced to a penny ; and the incomes 



352 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

of the higher dignitaries of the national church were placed 
upon a more fair and equal footing. 

There were several changes of the cabinet during Wil- 
liam's later years. Earl Grey, the veteran Whig chief un- 
der whose leadership the Reform Bill had been achieved, 
oabinet retired from the cabinet, and was succeeded as 
ciianges. prime minister by Viscount Melbourne (1834). 
In a few months the Melbourne cabinet was suddenly dis- 
missed by the king, who called Sir Robert Peel to the 
head of affairs. Sir Robert Peel was the ablest and wis- 
est of the Tory leaders, excepting the Duke of Wellington. 
But although he was favored by the king, the House of 
Commons was opposed to him. He was soon defeated 
by a vote of the House, and the king was forced to reluc- 
tantly call the Vrhigs back to power. Lord ^^lelbourne 
again became prime minister. Lord Melbourne's second 
cabinet extended for several years into the succeeding 
reign. Lord Melbourne and his colleagues were, how- 
ever, on the eve of resisfnins:, when the kins^ William the 
Fourth, suddenly fell ill and died, after a reign of seven 
years (1837). 

William the Fourth was succeeded by his niece, Victoria, 

the only child of the Dlike of Kent, who was the fourth 

son of Geor2;e the Third. At the tim.e of her ac- 

Accession ^ _ ^ 

of victo- cession Victoria was eighteen years old. She 
had been brought up in much retirement and 
simplicity; but she soon showed excellent sense, and 
an intelligent comprehension of her regal duties. The 
English felt a deep sympathy for their girl-queen, and her 
bearing in her new and grave position speedily inspired 
the love and confidence of her subjects. Hitherto the 
English sovereign had also reigned over the little kingdom 



VICTORIA. 353 

of Hanover, in Germany. But there was a law in Han- 
over which excluded females from the throne. The crown 
of Hanover, therefore, passed to the queen's 

' ^ '■ The crown 

uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, who was the of Hano- 
next male heir. The English were greatly re- 
joiced at this, because the connection with Hanover had 
more than once entangled England in European troubles, 
and might have done so again. 

The leading events of the early years of Victoria's reign 
were the suppression of a revolt in Canada; the adoption 
of the penny postage, by which letters could be sent to 
any part of the three kingdoms for a penny (two cents) ; the 
marriage of the queen to the wise and public-spirited 
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (1840) ; the suppres- 
sion of the revolt of the Eo^yptians as^ainst the 

Marriage 

rule of the sultan by English arms ; a successful of the 
war with the Chinese ; the war with Afghanistan, '*^®®"' 
during which the British envoy and sixteen thousand 
other English people were massacred, their murder being 
promptly avenged by a British occupation of the Afghan 
territory ; the resignation of the Melbourne cabinet, and 
the accession of the Tories to office, with Sir Robert Peel 
as prime minister (1841) ; the imposition of a tax of a 
penny a pound sterling on incomes ; and a revision of the 
tariff on foreign imports. This period also witnessed the 
agitation of the '' Anti-Corn-Law League," which devoted 
itself to the abolition of the laws which placed high du- 
ties upon the importation into England of foreign bread- 
stuffs. 

For a long time the laboring classes both of Great Brit- 
ain and of Ireland had suffered terribly by reason of the 
high price of food. There was great distress alike in 



354 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. 

the farming districts and in the manufacturing towns ; and 
this distress was attributed to the " corn laws," 

Distress of , . i i i • 

the labor- which kept up the price of corn by the duties 
ing classes, ^j^^^^ levied ou its importation. A terrible mis- 
fortune which befell the Irish peasantry hastened the tri- 
umph of the anti-corn-law league. Potatoes were the staple 
food of the Irish poor. One season a disease 

The Anti- 
Corn-Law broke out which entirely destroyed the potato 

eague. ^I'op, and the Irish were thus deprived of their 
main reliance for keeping body and soul together (1845). 
Famine threatened the entire laboring population. The 
agitation of the league, carried on with persistent vigor by 
Cobden, Bright, and other eloquent and earnest leaders, be- 
came too formidable to resist. Sir Robert Peel, though 
the Tory chief, resolved that the corn laws should be abol- 
ished. Some of his colleagues would not agree to this, 
and resigned. But Peel, aided by the Whigs, carried his 
point. By his proposal, a law was passed which imposed 
a fixed duty on bread-stuffs for three years, after which 
the duty on bread-stuffs should cease to exist altogether 
(1846). 

Thus the anti-corn-law league triumphed. The mo- 
nopoly of the English land-owners in corn was done away 
with, and the extreme distress of the working 

Triumph . , f 

of the people was almost at once relieved. But Sir 

eague. Robert Peel had served his country at the ex- 
pense of his own ambition. The discontented Tories 
joined with the Whigs in driving him from power. In 
the same year that the corn laws were reformed, his cabi- 
net resigned, and the Whigs came into office with Lord 
John Russell as prime minister (1846). The Irish had 
meanwhile engaged in a vigorous agitation, under the lead 



VICTORIA. 355 

of the eloquent O'Connell, for a repeal of the union be- 
tween Great Britain and Ireland ; but with O'Connell's 
death (1847), this agitation for the time subsided. The 
English government, however, made one concession to the 
Irish. A Catholic college at Maynooth was endowed 
with national funds. It was during Sir Robert Peel's 
ministr}^, too, that Jews were allowed, for the first time, 
to hold municipal offices in England. 

A danger to the peace of the country arose when Lord 
John Russell had been two years in power. The Reform 
Bill and the events which had followed it, the dis- The char- 
content of Ireland, the impulse given to politi- *^®*®- 
cal thought and discussion, and a third French revolution 
which now upset King Louis Philippe and established a 
French republic, had encouraged the rapid growth of a 
powerful society in England called the "Chartists." This 
name was derived from the fact that the society demanded 
the adoption of a "people's charter." The "charter" 
was intended to be nothing more or less than a new reform 
bill, which should give the people larger rights than they 
already had. It proposed that universal suffrage should 
be established ; that Parliament should be elected every 
year ; that voting should be by secret ballot ; that the 
holding of a certain amount of property should not be 
required as a qualification for sitting in Parliament; that 
members of . Parliament should be paid salaries; and that 
the electoral districts should be made equal. The Char- 
tists succeeded in electing several of their adherents to 
the House of Commons. Encouraged by this, they 
planned a great demonstration in London. The Decline of 
government took alarm, forbade the Chartists to chartism. 
march in procession, and made military preparations to 



356 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

suppress disorder; and the monster meeting proved a 
failure. This virtually put an end to the Chartist move- 
ment (1848). 

For some years after the decline of chartism and of 
Irish agitation, England pursued her career undisturbed 
by foreign wars or internal commotions. The first great 
"World's Fair," organized by Prhice Albert, the queen's 
consort, was held in the "Crystal Palace" in Hyde Park, 
London, and displayed the national and manufactured 
The World's p^oducts of many civilized countries (185 1). 
Fair. This event seemed to foreshadow a long era of 

mutual peace and good will among the nations ; but the 
bright promise was of brief duration. Within three years, 
three of the great powers of Europe were plunged in a 
terrible war. A quarrel between Russia and Turkey, fol- 
lowed by a Russian invasion of the sultan's dominions, 
resulted in an alliance between Turkey, England, and 
France against the czar. Russia had long coveted the 
possession of Constantinople, and deeply sympathized 
with the Christian races still under Turkish rule. Eng- 
land, on the other hand, feared that if the Russians held 
Constantinople, her Indian empire would be endangered. 
In France, Louis Napoleon had overthrown the republic 
of which he was president, had revived the empire, and 
had assumed the imperial crown. 

England's purpose in entering upon a war as the ally of 
Turkey, was to prevent the Russians from taking Constan- 
The crim- tiuoplc. The objcct of Napoleon in joining the 
ean war. alliancc was to strengthen his power at home 
by dazzling his subjects with a brilliant military career. 
No sooner had war been declared than the allies entered 
upon vigorous operations (1854). The chief seat of hos- 




IN 'lllE CKIMEAN WAR. — Pagk 356. 



VICTORIA. 357 

tilities was on the peninsula of the Crimea, on the north 
coast of the Black Sea, upon which stood the strong Rus- 
sian fortress of Sebastopol. The struggle is therefore 
known as "the Crimean War." The allies won the first 
victory at Alma, and then laid siege to Sebastopol from 
its southern side. The battles of Balaklava and Inker- 
man n followed, and also resulted in favor of the combined 
English and French forces. The siege lasted throughout 
thiC winter, durinsf which the besiecrins: armies suffered 
many hardships and miseries. Active operations were re- 
sumed in the spring, and continued through the summer ; 
and at last an obstinate and heroic attack on Tj,i^jj^p.^ ^f 
the fortress, in September, made the allies *^® aiiies. 
the masters of Sebastopol (1855). Russia was beaten and 
exhausted. Early in the following year peace was made 
by the treaty of Paris. By this treaty, Russia was forbid- 
den to sail men-of-war on the Black Sea, and was com- 
pelled to cede the province of Bessarabia to Roumania, 
which was then a princijDality subject to the sultan. 

During the progress of the Crimean War, a change took 
place in the cabinet. Lord John Russell, after remaining 
in office six years, had been defeated by a vote of the 
House of Commons, and had been succeeded by the Earl 
of Derby and a Tory cabinet (1852). But the existence of 
the Tory cabinet was short-lived, and in the same year it 
was replaced by the Whigs, under the premiership of the 
Earl of Aberdeen. It was under Aberdeen that the war 
broke out. But the conduct of the war was not satisfactory 
to the House of Commons or to the people, and 

^ '■ ' Lord Palm- 

after a premiership of two and a half years, erston as 

Aberdeen resigned, and was succeeded by Lord p'"®™^®''- 

Palmerston (1855). Lord Palmerston continued prime 



358 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

minister three years. He had formerly been a Tory, but 
was now a moderate \\'hig. The two great parties had 
now received new names. In the reign of William the 
Fourth, the Tories had come to be known as " Con- 
servatives," and the Whigs as "Liberals." The parties 
were, however, called by both names, and so they are 
still. 

Lord Palmerston was well-fitted for the post of prime 
minister. He had genial and popular manners, a good 
deal of dry English humor, a thorough knowledge of 
state affairs, great tact as a party leader, and a rare capac- 
paimerston-s ^^Y ^^v managing men. Although a Whig, or 
character. a Liberal," lie was opposed to making extensive 
reforms ; and so, during the time that he was the chief of 
the Liberals, no important changes were attempted in the 
constitution of the realm. By this time two statesmen had 
come into prominence, who were destined later to rise far 
above any others, to lead the two parties, and to contend 
with each other through many years for fame and power. 
These were William Ewart Gladstone and Benjamin Dis- 
raeli. Both were masters of parliamentary elo- 
and Glad- qucncc and debate, both had marked personal 
stone. traits, and both were first-rate party leaders. 

Both, moreover, had held the office of chancellor of the 
exchequer, the second place in importance in the cabinet. 
Next to Lord Palmerston, Gladstone was the leading spirit 
among the Liberals ; and next to the Earl of Derby. 
Disraeli was the chief figure among the Tories. 



CHAPTER LV. 

LATER YEARS OF VICTORIA'S REIGN. 

WITHIN a year after the close of the Crimean War, 
England was plunged into a conflict with China, 
and was called upon to suppress a terrible mutiny in her 
Indian empire. China had refused to admit The Indian 
opium, the most valuable product of India, into ^^^t^^^y- 
Chinese ports ; so the English determined to compel 
her to do so by force of arms. The English forces 
triumphed in China and returned home. Almost imme- 
diately the news of an outbreak among the native troops 
of India reached the English shores. It was said that 
the native soldiers (called " Sepoys ") had refused to use 
greased cartridges, since the grease was the fat of pigs, 
which thejr religion forbade them to taste. Other causes 
of the outbreak were given, though what was the prevail- 
ing cause still remains a question. A Sepoy cavalry regi- 
ment refused to obey orders on parade. The insurrection 
soon spread through central India ; and it was only after 
horrible massacres and cruelties had been committed 
that the mutiny was finally suppressed (1858). 

The vengeance taken by the English on the defeated 
natives was barbarous and brutal. Many of the Sepoys 
were blown from the cannon's mouth. The result of the 
mutiny was that the English government deprived the 

359 



360 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

East India Company of its powers, and assumed the 
Change in dircct rulc of India itself. The queen was 
the govern- (declared the sovereijin of India, and a cabinet 

ment of ® ' 

India. officer, with the title of " Secretary of State 

for India," was created to manage the affairs of the 
Oriental empire. Twenty years later (1879), Queen Victo- 
ria was proclaimed Empress of India. Lord Palmerston, 
after three years of power, was defeated, and was suc- 
cabinet cccded by the Earl of Derby and the Tories, 
cha ges. ^^i^Q j^g^y cabinet attempted to carry a reform 
bill, but was speedily out-voted, and retired from office 
(1859). Lord Palmerston again became prime minister, 
■with Lord John Russell and Mr. Gladstone as the leading 
members of his cabinet ; and Palmerston now remained in 
office until his death. 

The most notable events which occurred during Palm- 
erston's second term were the war between France and 
Austria, which resulted in the creation of the kingdom of 
Italy (1859), and the American civil war (1861-1865). The 
English took no direct part in the former struggle, though 
their sympathies were stron^lv in favor of Ital- 

TheAustro- J t- o . 

French Ian frccdom. At the outset of the American 
war, a large proportion of the English people 
favored the cause of the South. This was especially the 
case with the aristocratic and governing classes. The 
cabinet neglected to prevent the escape of privateers from 
English ports. The " Alabama" and other privateers were 
suffered to go forth and prey upon American commerce, 
contrary to international law ; and some years after the 
The Geneva closc of the civil war, England was forced to pay 
arbitration. ^^ ^}-,g United Statcs nearly ;^4,ooo,ooo, as dam- 
ages for the depredations committed by the "Alabama " 



LATER YEARS OF VICTORIA'S REIGN. 36 1 

and similar privateers. This was clone in consequence of 
the arbitration held at Geneva (1872). 

England suffered in several ways from the American 
war. The closing of the southern ports created a cotton 
famine in the English manufacturing districts, and a sea- 
son of terrible hardship among the operatives ensued. 
On several occasions, moreover, England came very near 
being involved in a war with the United States. But in 
each instance the danger passed away, and the 
differences between the two English-speaking fn?^h^ 
nations were patched up. Prince Albert, the American 

, ^ ^ ^ ' civil war. 

good and wise husband of the queen, whose 
sympathies were from the first with the American Union, 
had died at the outset of the war (December, 1861); but 
his counsels had a large influence on tiie conduct of the 
government after he had passed away. Lord Palmerston 
died at the ripe age of eighty-one (1865), and was suc- 
ceeded in the premiership by Lord John Russell, who had 
now become Earl Russell. Mr. Gladstone returned to his 
old place as chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the 
House of Commons. But this cabinet was defeated in 
less than a year on the question of electoral reform ; and 
for the third time within twenty years the Liberals gave 
way to a Conservative or Tory cabinet, with Lord Derby 
and Disraeli at its head (1866). 

A fresh agitation for electoral reform now sprang up 
throughout England. A generation had elapsed since 
the first great reform of 1832. The intelligence of the 
masses had increased, and much yet remained 

■^ Agitation 

to be done to make the House of Commons a for eiecto- 
true reflection of the popular will. Although ^^ ""^ °''^' 
the Tories were the party usually opposed to large 



362 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

changes, the Derby cabinet boldly took up the ques- 
tion of a new reform. This resolution was doubtless 
urged upon Lord Derby and his colleagues by many 
symptoms that the nation demanded it. Mr. Disraeli ac- 
cordingly brought a reform bill into the House of Com- 
mons. After many changes, the bill was passed and be- 
Househoid came a law. It practically gave the suffrage to 
suffrage. ^n Englishmen and Scotchmen who occupied 
houses as owners, tenants, or lodgers in the boroughs ; 
that is, in the cities, towns, and villages. It also reduced 
the qualification for the county franchise. Besides this 
bill, another measure became a law v/hich distributed the 
parliamentary districts more equally and fairly (1867). 
Eighteen years later (1885) another reform bill was passed 
under Mr. Gladstone's leadership, which extended house- 
hold suffras^e to the Endish counties, and to the 

The third *=' ° .... 

reform Irish counlics and boroughs. A fresh bill dis- 
tributing the seats was also passed, which created 
large numbers of single-member districts, and propor- 
tioned the membership of the House of Commons more 
nearly according to population. 

We have now reached a period in the history of Eng- 
land which is within the memory of persons not yet mid- 
dle-aged. The leading events of the later years of Victo- 
ria's reign (1867-1885) may be briefly stated. In the 
same year that the Disraeli household suffrage law was 
passed, England engaged in a war with Abyssinia. Cer- 
tain Englishmen had been kept in captivity by Theodore, 
the Abyssinian king. An expedition under Sir Robert 
Napier penetrated to Magdala, Theodore's capital, de- 
stroyed it, and released the prisoners (1867). In the next 
year, the Eari of Derby retired from the premiership, 



LATER YEARS OF VICTORIA'S REIGN. 363 

to which Benjamin Disraeli succeeded. But in a few 
months the Tories were defeated in the elec- 

The first 

tions, and Mr. Gladstone, at the head of a Lib- Gladstone 
eral cabinet, with John Bright, Lords Granville 
and Hartington, Mr. Lowe, and Mr. Childers as col- 
leagues, came into power. This cabinet remained in office 
five and a half years (1868-1874). It was a cabinet de- 
voted to active reforms. 

One of its first achievements was to disestablish the Irish 
church. That church was Protestant, while the over- 
whelming majority of the Irish were Catholics. The privi- 
leges and exactions of the Irish church had be- 
come an intolerable grievance; and its abolition usbmentof 
as a state institution swept away a just cause *^^^^jf^ 
of Irish discontent. The Gladstone cabinet also 
passed a land act for Ireland, which in some degree re- 
lieved the Irish farm tenants from the cruel oppressions 
under which they had suffered for centuries (1870). In 
the same year, a great measure dealing with primary edu- 
cation became a law. This measure provided that school- 
boards should be established wherever there was no provi- 
sion for schools; that education should become cheaper 
and more universal, and that the expenses should be in 
the main paid by local taxes, called " rates," otter re- 
levied for the purpose. During the next year, *'°^°^^- 
purchase in the army, by which military commissions had 
been bought and sold, was abolished by a royal decree ; the 
English civil service was thrown open to general competi- 
tion ; the religious tests which had restricted the right to 
enter the universities were abrogated ; trades-unions were 
protected in their legitimate purposes by the law ; and 
some improvements were made in the system of local 
government (187 1). 



364 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

Two great European wars had meanwhile taken place. 
Prussia had overcome Austria in a brief and bitter con- 
flict, and had become the dominant power in Germany 
(1866). Four years later Prussia had matched her prowess 
European "^^ith Francc, had totally defeated the French 
wars. army, taken the Emperor Napoleon prisoner, 

laid successful siege to Paris, and obtained the provinces 
of Alsace and Lorraine and a large money indemnity from 
the defeated nation (1870). England had nothing to do 
directly with these conflicts. But Russia took advantage 
of the complications arising from the later war, to demand 
that that part of the treaty of Paris which forbade her to 
sail her war ships on the Black Sea'"should be abolished. 
To this England was constrained to assent ; and the chief 
advantage won in the Crimean War was thus lost. During 
the last two years of the first Gladstone cabinet, the secret 
ballot was adopted as the method of voting; 
the arbitration of the " Alabama claims" was 
held at Geneva ; and an attempt was made to establish 
university education for the Irish at the cost of the state. 
On the latter measure the Liberal cabinet was defeated ; 
but it remained in office some months longer. Then Par- 
liament was dissolved, and in the ensuing elections a 
large Conservative majority was returned to the House of 
Commons. Mr. Disraeli once more became prime minis- 
ter, and held that office for six vears (187 4-1880). 

Disraeli ' . V / t / 

prime min- The most important event of this period was the 
war between Russia and Turkey (1877-78). Eng- 
land was deeply interested in this struggle. She dreaded 
a Russian triumph, which would establish the czar's 
power in Constantinople. It was contrary to all the tra- 
ditions of English policy that this should happen. After 



LATER YEARS OF VICTORIA'S REIGN. 365 

an obstinate contest, the Russian troops at last reached 
the walls of the sultan's capital. It was then that the 
English fleet sailed through the Straits of the Darda- 
nelles, and floated opposite Constantinople, ready to de- 
fend the city from a Russian attack. The Russian army, 
although flushed with victory, retired, and the war soon 
came to an end. A European congress met at The treaty 
Berlin to settle the terms of peace. Disraeli, °^ Berlin, 
the prime minister, who had now become Earl of Bea- 
consfield, attended the congress as England's represen- 
tative. The result of the congress was the treaty of 
Berlin, by which the Turkish rule in Europe was given a 
further lease of life, and Russian ambition was for a sea- 
son checked (1878). 

England became involved in petty wars with the Af- 
ghans, the Zulus, and the Boers of South Africa, during 
the Beaconsfield administration. In conjunction with 
France, England also interfered actively in the affairs of 
Egypt. After a time France withdrew from this England m 
arrangement. Then the English fleet bombarded ^^yp*- 
Alexandria ; English tioops defeated and captured Arabi 
Pasha, who had revolted from the Egyptian sovereign ; 
English garrisons occupied Alexandria and Cairo; and 
English agents assumed control of Egyptian affairs. 
Later a revolt arose in the Soudan against the Egyptian 
rule. England attempted to put down this revolt. The 
heroic Gordon was sent to Khartoum, the capital of the 
Soudan. But the English campaign in the Soudan was a 
failure. Khartoum was taken, and Gordon was slain by 
the rebels ; and the English forces were at last withdrawn 
from that region altogether (1885). 

A general election had (1880) resulted in the return 



^66 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. 

of the Liberals, under Gladstone, to power. A Lib- 
eral majority of one hundred sat in the new 

The second •' 

Gladstone Housc of Commons. The second Gladstone 
cabinet remained in ofhce five years. It was 
finally defeated and driven from power (1885) '■> ^^-^ ^ 
Tory cabinet, with the Marquis of Salisbury as prime min- 
ister, replaced it. In the course of the Liberal administra- 
tion, a more extensive land act for Ireland became a law. 
Irish land ^Y ^his act, the tenants of land were secured 
^°*- fair rents, freedom of sale, and protection from 

eviction. The last year of Gladstone's tenure of ofiice 
was notable for the passing of the third great reform bill 
and redistribution bill, which have already been described. 
This history has now been brought down to the forty- 
ninth year of the reign of Queen Victoria. The England 
of this period is great, powerful, progressive, and enlight- 
Finai ened. She holds sway over many thriving col- 

words. onies and dependencies, scattered throughout 

the globe. She is still mistress of the seas, and the chief 
commercial nation of the world. She approaches nearer 
and nearer every year towards complete democratic self- 
government. In literature, the arts, the sciences, in in- 
dustry and enterprise, in intellectual force, and searching 
inquiry, the English of to-day are unsurpassed by any 
other race. The gradual steps, the sturdy national traits, 
by which the English have built up so mighty and so flour- 
ishing an empire, and have had so powerful an influence 
on the destinies and progress of mankind, may be dis- 
covered in the oft-told but always astonishing history of 
their national career. 



CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS 

OF 

ENGLISH HISTORY. 



THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS. 



449 — 1016. 



449 English land in Britain. 

457 Kent conquered by English. 

477 Landing of South Saxons. 

495 Landing of West Saxons. 

520 British victory at Mount Badon. 

547 Ida founds Kingdom of Bernicia. 

552 West Saxons take Old Sarum. 

565 iEthelberht, King of Kent, died 616. 

568 driven back by West Saxons. 

571 West Saxons march into Mid- Britain. 

577 conquer at Deorham. 

593 .ffithelfrith creates Kingdom of 

Northumbria, died 617. 
597 West Saxons defeated at Fethanlea. 

A ugustine co7iverts Kent. 
603 Battle of Daegsastan. 
607 Battle of Chester. 
617 Eadwine, King of Northumbria, 
died 633. 

626 overlord of Britain. 

627 becomes Christian. 

633 slain at Hatfield. 

635 Oswald, King of Northumbria, died 

642. 
defeats Welsh at Hevenfeld. 

636 A idiiH settles at Holy Islajtd. 
639 Conversion of Wessex. 

642 Oswald slain at Maserfeld. 
655 Oswi, King of Northumbria, died 
670. 
victory at Winvvoed. 

657 Wulfere King in Mercia. 

658 West Saxons conquer as far as the 

Parret. 

664 Council of Whitby. 
Ccednion at Whitby. 

668 Theodore made Archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 

670 Egfrith, King of Northumbria, died 
685. 



676 Wulfere drives West Saxons over 
Thames. 

681 Wilfrid converts South Saxons. 

682 Centwine of Wessex conquers Mid- 

Somerset. 
685 Egfrith defeated and slain at Nech- 

tansmere. 
688 Ini, King of West Saxons, died 726. 
705 Northumbrian conquest of Strath- 

clyde. 
714 Ini defeats Ceolred of Mercia at 

Wodnesborough. 
716 iEthelbald, King of Mercia, died 755. 
733 Mercian conquest of Wessex. 
752 Wessex recovers freedom ir. battle of 

Burford. 

755 Deaths of Bceda and Boniface. 

756 Eadberht of Northumbria takes Al- 

cluyd. 
758 OfTa, King of Mercia, died 794. 

773 subdues Kentish men at Otford. 

777 defeats West Saxons at Bensing- 

ton. 
784 places Brightric on throne of 

Wessex. 

786 creates Archbishopric at Lich- 
field. 

787 First laiidin? of Danes in England. 
794 Cenwulf, King of Mercia, died 8ig. 

supnresses Archbishopric of Lich- 
field. 

800 Ecgberht becomes king in Wessex, 
died 836. 

808 Charhs the Great restores Eardwulf 
in Northumbria. 

813 Ecgberht subdues the West Welsh to 
the Tamar. 

822 Civil War in Mercia. 

823 Ecgberht defeats Mercians at Elian- 

dune. 



367 



368 



YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 



823 Ecgberht overlord of England south 

of Thames. 

824 Revolt of East Anglia against Mercia. 

825 Defeat of iNIercians by East Anglians. 

827 Mercia and Northumbria submit to 

Ecgberht. 
Ecgberht overlord of all English king- 
doms. 

828 invades Wales. 

835 defeats Danes at Hengestesdun. 

835 .(Ethelwulf, King of VVessex, diedSsS. 

849 jElfred born. 

851 Danes defeated at Aclea. 

853 .Elfred sent to Rome. 

855 .EtheUvulf goes to Rome. 

858 /Ethelbald, Kin^^ of Wessex, died 860. 

800 iEthelberht, King of VVessex, died 

866. 
355 iEthelred, King of Wessex, died 871. 

867 Danes conquer Northumbria. 

868 Peace of Nottingham with Danes. 

870 Danes conquer and settle in East 

Anglia. 

871 Danes invade Wessex. 

iElfred, King of Wessex, died 901. 
874 Danes conquer Mercia. 

876 Danes settle in Nortliumbria. 

877 ^Elfred defeats Danes at Exeter. 

878 Danes overrun Wessex. 
^Elfred victor at Ediugton. 
Peace of Wedinore. 

883 ^Elfred sends envoys to Rome and 

India. 
885 takes and refortifies London. 

893 Danes re-appear in Thames and Kent. 

894 -Elfred drives Hastings from Wessex. 
8j5 Hastings invades Mercia. 

896 ^^ilfred drives Danes from Essex. 



897 Hastings quits England. 

/Elfred creates a fleet. 
901 Eadward the Elder, died 925. 
912 Northmen settle in Normandy. 
913-918 /Ethelllaed conquers Danish Mer- 
cia. 
921 Eadward subdues East Anglia and 
Essex. 

924 owned as overlord by Northum- 
bria, Scots, and Strathclyde. 

925 iEthelstan, died 940. 

926 drives Welsh from Exeter. 

934 invades Scotland. 

937 Victory of Brunanburh. 

940 Eadmund, died 947. 

943 Diinstan made Abbot of Glastonbury. 

945 Cumberland graiited to Malcolm, 

King of Scots. 
947 Eadred, died 955. 

954 makes Northumbria an Earl- 
dom. 

955 Eadwig, died 957. 

950 Banishment of Dunstan. 

957 Revolt of Mercia under Eadgar. 

958 Eadgar, died 975. 

961 Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury. 
975 Eadward the Martyr, aied 979. 

979 /Ethelred the Unready, died 1016. 

980 Mercia and Northumbria part from 

Wessex. 
987-1040 Fulc the Black, Count of Anjou. 
994 Invasion of Swegen. 

1002 Massacre of Danes. 

1003 Swegen harries Wessex. 

1012 Murder of Archbishop ^Ifeah. 

1013 All England submits to Swegen. 

1014 Flight of .^tlnelred to Normandy 
ior6 Eadmund Ironside, King, and ^ies. 



ENGLAND UNDER FOREIGN KINGS. 



1017 — 1304. 



1017 Cnut, King, died 1035. 

1020 Godvvine made Earl of Wessex. 

1027 Cnut goes to Rome. 

Birth of William of Normandy. 
1035 Harold and Harthacnut divide Eng- 
land. 
1037 Harold, King, died 1040. 
1040 Harthacnut, King, diid 1042. 
1042 Eadward the Confessor, died 1065. 
1044 -loSo (}eoffry Martel, Count of Anjou. 
1045 Lxnfraiic at Bee. 
1047 Victory of William at Val-es-dunes. 

1051 I'.Tii^hment of Godwine. 

1052 William of Normandy visits England. 
Return and death of (jodwine. 

1053 Hirokl mad- Earl of West Saxons. 

1054 WiUiam's victory at Mortemer. 



1054- 

1055 
1058 
1060 
1063 
1066 



io58 
1070 
1075 
io8r 
io8s 
1086 



■1060 Norman conquest of southern 

Italy. 
Harold's first campaign in Wales. 
William's victory at the Dive. 
Normans invade Sicily. 
Harold conquers Wales. 
Harold, King. 

conquers at Stamford Bridge. 

defeated at Senlac, or Hastings. 

William of Normandy, King, died 

10S7. 
-1071 Norman conquest of England. 
Reorganization of the Church. 
Rising of Roger Fitz-Osbern. 
William invades W^es. 
Failure of Danish invasion. 
Completion of Domesday Book. 



CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS. 



369 



1087 
1093 
1094 

1096 

1097 

logS 
1 100 

IIOI 

1106 



iicg- 

iicg 
mi 
1113 
iiM 

1 1 18 
1120 
1122 
1 124 

1127 
1 1 28 
1134 
1135 
1 1 37 

1138 
1^39 
1141 



William the Red, died iioo. 

A nsehn A rchbishop. 

Revolt of Wales against the Norman 
Marchers. 

Revolt of Robert de Mowbray. 

Normandy left in pledge to William. 

William invades Wales. 

Anselni leaves England. 

War with France. 

Henry the First, died 1135. 

Henry's Charter. 

William of Normandy invades Eng- 
land. 

Settlement of question of investi- 
tures. 

Enrli-h Conquest of Normandy. 

-1 129 Fulc of Jerusalem, Count of 
Anjou. 

War with France. 

War with Anjou. 

Peace of Gisors. 

Marriage of Matilda with Henry V. 

Revolt of Norman baronage. 

Wreck of White Ship. 

Henry's campaign in Wales. 

France and Anjou support William 
Clito. 

Matilda married to Geoffry of Anjou. 

Death of the Clito in Flanders. 

Revolt of Wales. 

Stephen of Blois, died 1154. 

Normandv repulses the Angevins. 

Revolt of "Earl Robert. 

Battle of the Standard. 

Seizure of the Bishops 

Battle of I^incoln. 



1 147 Matilda withdraws to Normandy. 

1 148 Henry of Anjou in England. 
Archbishop Theobald driven into 

exile. 

1151 Henry becomes Duke of Normandy. 

1152 Henry marries Eleanor of Guienne. 

1 153 Henry in England. Treaty of Wal- 

lingford. 

1154 Henry the Second, died iiSg. 
1160 Expedition against Toulouse. 

The Great Scutage. 
1162 Thomas made Archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 
1 164 Constitutions of Clarendon. 

Flight of Archbishop Thomas. 
1166 Assize of Clarendon. 
Ii6g Strongbow's invasion of Ireland. 
1 170 Death of Archbishop Tiiomas. 

Inquest of Sheriffs. 
I174 Rebellion of Henry's sons. 
1 176 Assize of Northampton. 
1178 Reorgar.ization of Curia Regis. 
Ii3i Assize of Arms. 
1189 Revolt of Richard. 

Richard the First, died ugg. 
1190-1194 Richard's Crusade. 
1194-1196 War with Philip Augustus. 
1195-1246 Llewellyn-ap-Jorwerthin North 

Wales. 
1197 Richard builds Chateau Gaillard. 

1199 John, died 12 16. 

1200 recovers Anjou and Maine. 

Lr^yamon writes the Brut. 

1203 Murder of Arthur. 

1204 French conquest of Anjou and Nor- 

mandy. 



THE GREAT CHARTER. 



1304 — 1395. 



1205 Barons refuse to fight for recovery 

of Normandy. 
1208 Innocent III. puts England under 

Interdict. 

121 1 John reduces Llewellyn-ap-Jorwerth 

to submission. 

1212 John divides Irish Pale into coun- 

ties. 

1213 John becomes the Pope's vassal. 

1214 Battle of Bouvines. 
Birth of Roger Bacon. 

1215 The Great Charter. 

12 1 6 Lewis of France called in by the 

Barons. 
Henry the Third, died 1273. 
Confirmation of the Charter. 

1217 Lewis returns to France. 
Hubert de Burgh, Justiciary. 
Charter ajrain confirmed. 



1221 
1223 
1225 
1228 



1229 
1230 

1231 
1232 
1237 
1238 

1241 
1242 
1246 

1248 



Friars land i)t England. 

Charter again confirmed at Oxford. 

Irish confirmation of Charter. 

Revolt of Faukes de Breaute. 

Stephen Langton's death. 

Papal exaction^. 

Failure of Henry's campaign in Poi- 

tou. 
Conspiracy against the Italian clergy.' 
Fall of Hubert de Burgh. 
Charter again confirmed. 
Earl Simon of Leicester marries 

Henry's sister. 
Defeat of Henry at Taillebourg. 
Barons refuse subsidies. 
-1283 Llewellyn-ap-Gryffyth, Prince 

in North Wales. 
Irish refusal of subsidies. 
Earl Simon in Gascony. 



370 



YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 



1253 Earl Simon returns to England. 

1259 Provisions of Oxford. 

1261 Earl Simon leaves England. 

1264 Mise of Amiens. 
Battle of Lewes. 

1265 Commons summoned to Parliament. 
Battle of Evesham. 

1267 Roger Bacon writes his " Optts 

Alajns.''^ 

1268 Llewellyn-ap-Gryffyth owned as 

Prince of Wales. 
1270 Edward goes on Crusade. 
1274 Edward the First, died 1307. 
1277 Edward reduces i>lewellyn-ap-Gryf- 

fyth to submission. 
1279 Statute of Mortmain. 



1282 Conquest of Wales. 

1284 Statute of Merchants. 

1285 Statute of Winchester. 

1290 Statute " Quia Emptores." 
Expulsion of the Jews. 
Marriage Treaty of Brigham. 

1291 Parliament at Norham settles Scotch 

succession. 

1293 Edward claims appeals from Scot- 

land. 

1294 Seizure of Guienne by Philip of 

France. 

1295 French fleet attacks Dover. 

Final organization of the English 
Parliament. 



THE WARS WITH SCOTLAND AND FRANCE. 
1396 — 1485. 



1296 Edward conquers Scotland. 

1297 Victory of Wallace at Stirling. 
Outlawry of the Clergy. 

Barons refuse to serve in Flanders. 

1298 Edward forced to renounce illegal 

taxation. 
Edward conquers Scots at Falkirk. 
Peace with France. 

1301 Barons demand nomination of Min- 

isters by Parliament. 

1302 Barons exact fresh confirmations of 

the Charters. 

1304 Final submission of Scotland. 

1305 Parliament of Perth. 

1306 Rising of Robert Bruce. 

1307 Parliament of Carlisle. First Statute 

of Provisors. 
Edward the Second, died 1327. 

1308 (javeston exiled. 

1310 The Fords Ordainers draw up Arti- 
cles of Reform. 
1312 Death of Gaveston. 
1314 Battle of Bannockburn. 
1316 Battle of Athenry. 
1318 Edward accepts the Ordinances. 

1322 Death of Earl of Leicester. Ordi- 

nances annulled. 

1323 Truce with the Scots. 

1324 French attack Aquitaine. 

1325 The Queen and Prince Edward in 

France. 

1326 Queen lands in England. 

1327 Deposition of Edward IL 
Edward the Third, died 1377. 

1328 Treaty of Northampton recognizes 

independence of Scotland. 

1329 Death of Robert Bruce. 

1330 Death of Roc;er Mortimer. 

1332 Edward Balliol invades Scotland. 



1333 Battle of Halidon Hill. 
Balliol does homage to Edward. 

1334 Balliol driven from Scotland. 
1335-1336 Edward invades Scotland. 
1336 1* ranee again declares war. 
1337-1338 War with France and Scotland. 

1339 Edward claims crown of France. 
Edward attacks France from Bra- 
bant. 

1340 Battle of Sluys. 

1343 War in Brittany and Guienne. 

1346 Battles of Cressy and Neville's Cross. 

1347 Capture of Calais. 
Truce with France. 

1349 First appearance of the Black Death. 
1351-1353 Statutes of Laborers. 

1353 Urst Statute of Prsmunire. 

1354 Renewal of French war. 
1356 Battle of Poitiers. 

1360 Treaty of Bretigny. 

1367 The Black Prince victorious at Na- 

jara. 
Statute of Kilkenny. 

1368 Renewal of French war. 
IVyclifs treatise ''De Doininio.'''' 

1370 .Storms of Limoges. 

1372 Victory of Spanish fleet off Rochelle. 

1374 Revolt of Aquitaine. 

1376 The Good Parliament. 

1377 Its work undone by the Duke of 

Lancaster. 

Wyclif before the Bishops of Lon- 
don. 

Richard the Second, died 1399. 

1378 Gregory XL denounces WycUf's 

heresy. 

1380 LojigJand^s '^ Piers the Plonghtnan. " 

1381 Wyclif's declaration against Tran- 

substantiation. 



CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS. 



371 



1381 The Peasant Revolt. 1424 

1382 Condemnation of Wyclif at Black- 1429 

friars. 1430 

Suppression of the Poor Preachers. 1431 

1384 Death of Wyclif. 1435 

1387 Barons force Richard to dismiss the 1444 

Earl of Suffolk. 1447 

1389 Truce with France. 1450 
1394 Richard in Ireland. 

1396 Richard marries Isabella of France. 
Truce with, prolonged. 1451 

1397 Murder of the Duke of Gloucester. 1454 
1393 Richard's plans of tyranny. 1455 

1399 Deposition of Richard. 1456 
Henry the Fourth, died 1413. 1459 

1400 Revolt of Owen Glendower in 1460 

Wales. 

1401 Statute of Heretics. 

1402 Battle of Homildon Hill. 1461 

1403 Revolt of the Percies. 

1404 I'rench descents on England. 

1405 Revolt of Archbishop Scrope. 

1407 French attack Gascony. 1464 

141 1 English force sent to aid Duke of 1470 
Burgundy in France. 

1413 Henry the Fifth, died 1422 1471 

1414 Lollard Conspiracy. 1475 

1415 Battle of Agincourt. 1476 
1417 Henry invades Normandy. 1483 

1419 Alliance with Duke of Burgundy. 

1420 Treaty of Troyes. 

1422 Henry the Sixth, died 1471. 1485 



Battle of Verneuil. 

Siege of Orleans. 

County Suffrage restricted. 

Death of Joan of Arc. 

Congress of Arras. 

Marriage of Margaret of Anjou. 

Death of Duke of Gloucester. 

Impeachment and death of Duke of 

Suffolk. 
Cade's Insurrection. 
Loss of Normandy and Guienne. 
Duke of York nan'ied Protector. 
First batth of St. Albans. 
End of York's Protectorate. 
Failure of Yorkist revolt. 
Battle of Northampton. 
York acknowledged as successor. 
Battle of Wakefield. 
Second battle of St. Albans. 
Battle of Mortimer'f. Cross. 
Edward the Fourth, di.;d 1483. 
BattL of Towton. 
Edward marrijs Lady Grey. 
Warwick driven to France. 
Flight of Edw-ard to Burgundy. 
Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. 
Edward invades France. 
Caxton settles in England. 
Murder of Edward the Fifth. 
Richard the Third, di -d 14S5. 
Buckingham's insurrection. 
Battle of Bosvvorth. 



THE TUDOR S. 



1485 — 1603. 



1485 
1487 
1489 
1491 
1496 

1497 
1499 
1501 

1502 

1505 
1509 



1512 
1513 

1516 
1517 
1519 



Henry the Seventh, died 1509. 
Conspiracy of Lambert Simncl. 
Treaty with Ferdinand and Isabella. 
Henry invades France. 
Cornish Rebellion. 
Perkin Warbeck captured. 
Sebastian Cabot lands in America. 
Colet and Erasmus at Oxford. 
Arthur Tudor marries Catharine of 

Aragon. 
Margaret Tudor marries James the 

Fourth. 
Colet Dean of St. PanPs. 
Henry the Eighth, died 1547. 
Erasmus writes the ^'Praise of 

Folly.'" 
War with France. Colet fo7inds St. 

PaiWs School. 
Battles of the Spurs and of Flodden. 
Wolsey becomes chief Minister. 
More'^s ^^ Utopia.'''' 
Luther denounces Indulgences. 
Field of Cloth of Gold. 



1520 Luther burns the Pope's Bull. 

1521 Quarrel of Luther with Henry the 

Eighth. 

1522 Renewal of French War. 

1523 Wolsey quarrels with the Commons. 

1524 E.xaction of Benevolenc.s defeated. 

1525 Peace with France. Tyndal trans- 

lates the Bible. 

1527 Henry resolves on a Divorce. Per- 
secution of Protestants. 

1529 Fall of Wolsey. Ministry of Nor- 
folk and More. 

1531 King acknowledged as " Supreme 

Head of the Church of Eng- 
land." 

1532 Statute of Appeals. Anne Boleyn 

crowned. 

1534 Acts of Supremacy and Succession. 

1535 Cromwell Vicar-General. Death of 

More. 
Overthrow of the Geraldines in Ire- 
land. 

1536 English Bible issued. 



3/2 



YOUXG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 



1536 Dissolution of lesser Monasteries. 

1537 Pilgrimage of Grace. 

1538 Execution of Lord Exeter and Lady 

Salisbury. 

1539 Law of Six Articles. 
Suppression of greater Abbeys. 

1542 Completion of the Tudor Conquest 

of Ireland. 

1543 Fall of Cromwell. 

1547 Execution of Earl of Surrey. 
Edward the Sixth, died 1553. 
Battle of Pinkie Cleugh. 

1548 English Book of Common Prayer. 

1549 Western Rebellion. End of Somer- 

set's Protectorate. 

1551 Death of Somerset. 

1552 Suppression of Chantries. 

1553 Mary, died 1559. 
Chancellor discovers Archangel. 

1554 Mary marries Philip of Spain. 
England absolved by Cardinal Pole. 

1555 Persecution of Protestants begins. 

1556 Burning of Archbishop Cranmer. 

1557 War with France. 

1558 Loss of Calais. 

1559 Elizabeth, died 1603. 

restores Royal Supremacy and 

English Prayer-book. 

1560 War in Scotland. 

1551 JNIary Stuart lands in Scotland. 

1562 Rebellion of Shane O'Neill in Ulster. 
Elizabeth supports French Hugue- 
nots. 

First Penal Statute against Catho- 
/ lies, and first Poor Law. 

/ Hawkins begins Slave-trade with 
Africa. 

1563 English driven out of Havre. 
Thirty-nine Articles imposed on 

clergy. 
15C5 Mary manies Darnley. 
1560 Darnley murders Rizzio. 

Royal Exchange built. 
1557 Bothwell murders Darnley. 

Defeat and death of Shane O'Neill. 
15O3 Mary flies to England. 
1559 Revolt of the northern Earls. 
1571 Bull of Deposition issued. 



1572 Conspiracy and death of Norfolk. 
Rising of the Low Countries against 

Alva. 
Cartwright's "Admonition to the 

Parliament." 

1575 Wentworth sent to the Tower. 

1576 Fi7-st ptihlic Theatre in Black/ri- 

ars. 

1577 Landing of the Seminary Priests. 
Drake sets sail for the Pacific. 

1578 Lyiys " Euphues.''' 

1579 Spetiser publishes " SJiepJiercT s Cal- 

eiidar.'''' 

1580 Campian and Parsons in England. 
Revolt of the Desmonds. Massacre 

of Smerwick. 

1583 Plots to assassinate Elizabeth. 
New powers given to Ecclesiastical 

Commission. 

1584 Murder of Prince of Orange. 
Armada gathers in the Tagus. 
Colonization of Virginia. 

1585 English army sent to Netherlands. 
Drake on the Spanish Coast. 

1586 Battle of Zutphen. 
Babington's Plot. 
SJiakespeare in London. 

1587 Death of Mary Stuart. 

Drake burns Spanish fleet at Cadiz. 
Marlowe'' s " Tainburlaitie.'''' 

1588 Defeat of the Armada. 
Marti7i l\Iar prelate Tracts. 

1589 Drake plunders Corunna. 

1590 Publication 0/ the ^''Faerie Queene.^* 

1593 SJiakespeare^ s^' Venus and Adonis." 

1594 Hooker's " Ecclesiastical Polity." 

1596 Jouso7i''s " Every Alan ifi his Hu- 

vior.'''' 
Descent upon Cadiz. 

1597 Ruin of the Second Armada. 
Bacon'' s " Essays.''"' 

1598 Revolt of Hugh O'Neill. 

1599 E.xpedition of Earl of Essex in Ire- 

land. 
1601 Execution of Essex. 
1603 Mountjoy completes the Conquest of 

Ireland. 
Death of Elizabeth. 



THE STUARTS. 
1603 — 1688. 



1603 James the First, died 1625. 
Millenary Petition. 

1604 Parliament claims to deal with both 

Church and State. 
Hampton Court Conference. 

1605 Gunpowder Plot. 

Bacon'' s '^'Advancement of Learn- 
in^.'''' 



1610 Parliament's Petition of Grievances. 

Plantation of Ulster. 
l5i3 Marriage of the Elector Palatine. 

1614 First quarrels with the Parliament. 

1615 Trial of the Earl of Somerset. 
Disgrace of Chief Justice Coke. 
Sale of Peerages. 

Proposals for the Spanish Marriage. 



CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS. 



373 



1616 Death of Shakespeare. 

1617 Bacon Lord Keeper. 
Expedition and death of Raleigh. 
The Declaration of Sports. 

1618 Beginning of Thirty Years' War. 

1620 Invasion of tlie Palatinate. 
Bacoii's '''' Nozniiii OrgannniV 
Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers in 

New England. 
Impeachment of Bacon, 

1621 James tears out the Protestation of 

the Commons. 

1623 Tourney of Charles to Madrid. 

1624 Resolve of War against Spain. 

1625 Charles the First, died 1649. 
First Parliament dissolved. 
Failure of expedition against Cadiz. 

1626 Buckingham impeached. 
Second Parliament dissolved. 

1627 Levy of Benevolences and Forced 

Loan. 
Failure of Expedition to Rochelle. 

1628 The Petition of Right. 
Murder of Buckingham. 
Laud Bishop of London. 

1629 Dissolution of Third Parliament. 
Charter granted to Massachusetts. 
Wentworth Lord President of the 

North. 

1630 Puritan Emigration to New England. 

1631 Wentworth Lord Deputy in Ireland. 

1633 Laud Archbishop of Canterbury. 
Milton'' s '■'■Allegro'''' and " Perise- 

roso^ 
Prynne's " Histriomastix." 

1634 Milton'' s " Coiiius.'''' 
1630 Juxon Lord Treasurer. 

Book of Canons and Common Prayer 
issued for Scotland. 

1637 Hampden refuses to pay Ship-money. 
Revolt of Edinburgh. 

Trial of Hampden. 

1638 Milton'' s " Ljycidas.''^ 
The Scotch Covenant. 

1639 Leslie at Dunse Law. 
Pacification of Berwick. 

1640 The Short Parliament. 
The Bishops' War. 

Great Council of Peers at York. 
Long Parliament meets, Nov. 

1641 Execution of Strafford, May. 
Charles visits Scotland. 

Tlie Irish Massacre, Oct. 

The Grand Remonstrance, A^ov. 

1642 Impeachmpnt of Five Members, _/««. 
Charles before Hull, April. 
Royalists withdraw from Parliament. 
Charles raises Standard at Notting- 
ham. Ansr. 

Battle of Edeehill, Oct. 3^. 
H abbes writes the " De Cive.''^ 



I 1643 Assembly of Divines assembles at 
Westminster. 
Rising of the Cornishmen, May. 
Death of Hampden, y«;/t'. 
Battle of Roundway Down, July. 
Siege of Gloucester, Aug. 
Taking of the Covenant, Sept. 23. 

1644 Fight at Cropredy Bridge, /««£?. 
Battle of Marston Moor, July. 
Surrender of Parliamentary Army in 

Cornwall, Sept. 
Battle of Tippermuir, Sept. 
Battle of Newbury, Oct. 

1645 Self-renouncing Ordinance, April. 
New Model raised. 

Battle of Nasebv,y'««^ 14. 
Battle of Philiphaugh, Sept. 

1646 Charles surrenders to the Scots, May. 

1647 Scots surrender Charles to the 

Houses, Feb. 
Army elects Adjutators, April. 
The King seized at Holmby House, 

June. 
" Humble Representation " of the 

Army, June. 
Expulsion of the Eleven Members. 
Army occupies London, Aug. 
Flight of the King, Nov. 
Secret Treaty of Charles with the 

Scots, Dec. 

1648 Outbreak of the Royalist Revolt, Feb. 
Revolt of the Fleet, and of Kent, 

May. 
Fairfax and Cromwell in Essex and 

Wales, June-Jidy. 
Battle of Preston, A7ig. 18. 
Surrender of Colchester, Azig. 27. 
Pride's Purge, Dec. 
Royal Society begins at Oxford. 

1649 Execution of Charles \.,Jan. 30. 
Scotland proclaims Charles II. 
England proclaims itself a Common- 
wealth 

Cromwell storms Drogheda, Aug. 

1650 Cromwell enters Scotland, May. 
Battle of Dunbar, Sept 3. 

1651 Battle of Worcester, Sept. 3. 
Union with Scotland and Ireland. 
Hobbes^s " Lezuathan."' 

1652 Outbreak of Dutch War, May. 
Victon' of Van Tromp, Nov. 

1653 Victory of Blake, Feb. 

Cromwell diives out the Parliament, 

April iq. 
Constituent Convertion (Barebones 

Parliament\ July 
Convention dissolves, Dec. 

1654 The Instrument of Government. 
Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protec- 
tor, died iftqS. 

Peace concluded with Holland. 



374 



YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 



1654 First Protectorate Parliament, Sef>t. 

1655 Dissolution of the Parliament, y^jw. 
The Major- Generals. 
Settlement of Scotland and Ireland. 
Settlement of the Church. 

1656 P)lake in the Mediterranean. 

War witli Spain and Conquest of Ja- 
maica. 

Second Protectorate Parliament, 
Sept. 

1657 Blake's victory at Santa Cruz. 
Cromwell refuses title of King. 
Act of Government. 

1658 Parliament dissolved, Feb. 
Battle of the Dunes. 
Capture of Dunkirk. 
Death of Cromwell, Sept. t,. 
Richard Cromwell, Lord Protec- 
tor, died 1 7 12. 

1659 Third Protectorate Parliament. 
Parliament dissolved. 

Long Parliament recalled. 

Long Parliament again driven out. 

1660 Monk enters London. 

Tlie " Convention " Parliament. 

Charles the Second, lands at Do- 
ver May, died 1685. 

Union of Scotland and Ireland un- 
done. 
i65i Cavalier Parliament b;gins. 

Act of Unifcjrmity re-enacted. 

1662 Puritan clergy driven out. 
Royal Society at London. 

1663 Dispensing 15111 (ails. 

1664 Conventicle Act. 
Dutch War begins. 

1665 Five-Mile Act. 

Plague and Fire of London. 

Newt oil's Theory of Fluxions. 
1667 The Dutch in the Medway. 

Dismissal of Clarendon. 

Peace of Breda. 

Lewis attacks Flanders. 

Milfoil's " Paradise Lost.''^ 
i538 The Triple Alliance. 

Peace of Ai.x-Ia-Chapelle. 
i659 Ashley shrinks back from toleration 

to Catliolics. 
1570 Treaty of Dover. 

Biiiiyaii's " Filgr lilt's Progress'''' 
written. 

1671 Milton's ^''Paradise Regained'"' and 

'' Samson Agonistes." 
Newton's Theory 0/ Light. 
Closing of the Exchequer. 

1672 Declaration of Indulgence. 
War begins with Holland. 
Ashley made Chancellor. 
Declaration of Indulgence with- 
drawn. 

1673 The Test Act. 



1673 Shaftesbury dismissed. 
Shaftesbury takes the lead of the 

Country Party. 

1674 Bill of Protestant Securities fails. 
Charles makes peace with Holland. 
Danby Lord Treasurer. 

1675 Treaty of mutual aid between Charles 

and Lewis. 

1676 Shaftesbury sent to the Tower. 

1677 Bill for Security of the Church fails. 
Address of the Commons for War 

with France. 
Prince of Orange marries Mary. 

1678 Peace of Nimegnen. 

Gates invents the Popish Plot. 

Fall of Danby. 

New Ministry, with Shaftesbury at 

its head. 
Temple's plan for a new Council. 

1679 New Parliament meete. 
Habeas Corpus Act passed. 
Exclusion Bill introduced. 
Parliament dissolved. 
Shaftesbury dismissed. 

1680 Committee for agitation formed. 
Monmouth pretends to the throne. 
Petitioners and Abhorrers. 
Exclusion Bill thrown out by the 

Lords. 
Trial of Lord Stafford. 

1681 Parliament at Oxford. 
Limitation Bill rejected. 
Monmouth and Shaftesbury arrested. 

1682 Conspiracy and flight of Shaftesbury. 
Rye-house Plot. 

1683 Death of Shaftesbury. 

Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney 
executed. 

1684 Town charters quashed. 
Army increased. 

1685 James the Second, died 1701 
Insurrection of Argyle and Mon- 
mouth. 

Battle of Sedgemoor,/?</j' 6- 
The Bloody Circuit. 
Army raised to 20,000 men. 
Revocation of Edict of Nantes. 

1686 Parliament refuses to repeal Test 

Act. 
Test Act dispensed with by Royal 

authority. 
Ecclesiastical Commission set up. 

1687 Newton's " Principia." 
Expulsion of the Fellows of Magda- 
len. 

Dismissal of Lords Rochester and 

("larendon. 
Declaration of Indulgence. 
The borouglis regulated. 
William of Orange protests against 

the Declaration. 



CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS. 



375 



1687 Tyrconnell made Lord Deputy in 

Ireland. 

1688 Clergy refuse to read Declaration of 

Indulgence. 
Threat of the Seven Bishops. 



1688 Irish troops brought over to Eng- 
land. 
Lewis attacks Germany. 
William of Orange lands at Torbay. 
Flight of James. 



MODERN ENGLAND. 
1689 — 1885. 



l68g Convention Parliament. 
Declaration of Ki^lits. 
William and Mary made King 

and Queen. 
William forms the Grand Alliance 

against Lewis. 
Battle of Killiecrankie, /?</)/ 27. 
Siege of Londonderry. 
Mutiny Bill. 
Toleration Bill 
Bill of Rights. 
Secession of the Nonjurors. 

1690 Abjuration Bill and Act of Grace. 
Battle of Beachy Head,/zme 29. 
Battle of the Boyne,y«/y 6. 
William repulsed from Limerick. 

1691 Battle of Aughrim, _/?</>/. 
Capitulation and Treaty of Limerick. 

1692 Massacre of Giencoe. 
Battle of La Hogue, May 19. 

1693 Sunderland's plan of a Ministry. 

1694 Bank of England set up. 
Death of Mary. 

1696 Currency restored. 

1697 Peace of Ryswick. 

1698 First Partition Treaty. 

1700 Second Partition Treaty. 

170 1 Duke of Anjou becomes King of 

Spain. 
Death of James the Second. 
Act of Settlement passed. 

1702 Anne, died 1714. 

1704 Battle of Blenheim, An^'. 13. 
Harley and St John take office. 

1705 Victories of Peterborough in Spain. 

1706 Battle of Ramillies, 3/a_y 23. 

1707 Act of Union with Scotland. 

1708 Battle of Oudenarde. 
Dismissal of Harley and St. John. 

1709 Battle of Malplaquet. 

1710 Trial of .Sacheverel. 

Tory Ministry of Harley and St. 
John. 

1712 Dismissal of Marlborough. 

1713 Treaty of Utrecht. 

1714 George the First, died 1727. 
Ministry of Townshend and Walpole. 

1715 Jacobite Revolt under Lord Mar. 

1716 Ministry of Lord Stanhope. 
The Septennial Bill. 



1717 The Triple Alliance. 

1718 The Quadruple Alliance. 

1720 Failure of the Peerage Bill. 
The South Sea Company. 

1721 Ministry of Sir Robert Walpole. 

1722 E.\ile of Bishop Atterbury. 
1727 War with Austria and Spain. 

George the Second, died 1760. 

1729 Treaty of Seville. 

1730 Free exportation of American rice 

allowed. 

1731 Treaty of Vienna. 
1733 Walpole's Excise Bill. 

War of the Polish Succession. 
Family Compact between France and 
Spain. 

1737 Death of Queen Caroline. 

1738 T/ie JMethodlsts appear in London. 

1739 War declared witli Spain. 

1740 War of the Austrian Succession. 

1742 Resignation of Walpole. 

1743 Ministry of Henry Pelham. 
Battle of Dettingen,///;/^ 27. 

1745 Battle of Fontenoy, May 3 1 
Charles Edward lands in Scotland.. 
Battle of Preslonpans, Sept 21. 
Charles Edward reaches Derby, 

Dec. 4. 

1746 Battle of Falkirk, /««. 23. 
Battle of Culloden, April 16. 

1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
1751 Clive's surprise of Arcot. 

1754 Death of Henry Pelham. 
Ministry of Duke of Newcastle. 

1755 The Seven Years' War. 
Defeat of General Braddock. 

1756 Loss of Port Mahon. 
Retreat of Admiral Byng. 

1757 Convention of Closter-.Seven. 
Ministry of WiUiam Pitt. 
Battle of Plassey,y««^23. 

1758 Capture of Louisburg and Cape Bre- 

ton. 
Capture of Fort Duquesne. 

1759 Battle of Minden, Aug. i. 
Battle of Quiberon Bay, Nov. 20. 
Capture of Fort Niagara and Ti- 

conderoga. 
Wolfe's Victory on Heights of Abra- 
ham. 



376 



YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 



1760 George the Third, died 1S20. 
Battle of Wandewash. 

1761 Ministry of Lord Bute. 
Britidley''s Ca7ial over the Irwell. 

i']Q2 Peacj of Paris. 

1763 Wedgwood establishes Potteries. 

1 764 Hargreaves iiivents Spiujiiug-Jenfiy. 
lyb^ Stamp Act passed. 

Ministry of Lord Rockingham. 

Meeting and Protest of American 
Congress. 

JP'att invents Steam- Engine. 
1766 Repeal of the Stamp Act. 

Ministiyof Lord Chatham. 
1763 Minist:y of the Duke of Grafton. 

Wilkes expelled from House of Com- 
mons. 

Arkivright iiivents Spinning-Ma- 
chine. 

1769 Wilkes three times elected for Mid- 

dlesex. 
House of Commons seats Colonel 

Luttrell. 
Occupation of Boston by British 

troops. 
Letters ojfjimins. 

1770 IMinistry of Lord North. 
Chatham proposes Parliamentary 

Reform. 

1771 Last attempt to prevent Parliamen- 

tary reporting. 
Beginning of tJie great English 
Jonrnals. 

1773 Hastings appointed Governor-Gen- 

eral. 
Boston tea-ships. 

1774 Military occupation of Boston. Port 

closed. 
Massachusetts Charter altered. 
Congress assembles at Philadelphia. 

1775 Rejection of Chatham's plan of con- 

ciliation. 

Skirmish at Lexington. 

Americans, under Washington, be- 
siege Boston. 

Battle of Bunker's Hill. 

Southern Colonies expel their Gov- 
ernors. 

1776 Crompton invents the Mide. 
Arnold invades Canada. 
Evacuation of Boston. 
Declaration of hidependence,^/^/}' 4. 
Battles of Brooklyn and Trenton. 
Adam Smith'' s ''■'Wealth of Xa- 

tions.'' 

1777 Battle of Brandywine. 
Surrender of Saratoga, Oct. 13. 
Chatliam proposes Federal Union. 
Wasliington at Valley ^orge. 

1778 Alliance of France with United 

States. 



1778 Death of Chatham, April 7. 

1779 Alliance of Spain with United States. 
Siege of Gibraltar. 

Armed Neutrality of Northern Pow- 
ers. 
The Irish Volunteers. 

1780 Cornwallis captures Charleston. 
Descent of Hyder Ali on the Car- 

natic. 

1781 Defeat of Hyder at Porto Novo. 
Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 

1782 Ministry of Lord Rockingham. 
Victories of Rodney. 
Repeal of Poyning's Act. 

Pitt's Bill for Parliamentary Reform. 
Burke's Bill of Economical Reform. 
Shelburne INLnlstry. 
Repulse of Allies from Gibraltar. 
Treaties of Paris and Versailles. 

1783 Coalition Ministrvof Fox and North. 
Fox's Lidla Bill. ' 

Ministrv of Pitt. 

1784 Pitt's liidla Bill. 
Sinking Fund and Excise. 

1785 Parllamentan' Reform Bill. 
Free-trade Bill between England and 

Ireland. 

1786 Trial of Warren Hastings. 

1787 Treatv of Commerce with France. 

1788 The Regency Bill. 

1789 Meeting of States-General at Ver- 

sailles. 

New French Constitution. 

Triple Alliance for defence of Tur- 
key. 

1790 Quarrel over Nootka Sound. 
Pitt defends Poland. 

Burke'' s '^ Refections on tlie French 
Revohition.'''' 

1791 Representative Government set up 

in Canada. 
Fox's Libel Act. 
Burke^s '' Appeal fro7n New to Old 

Whigs.''' 

1792 Pitt hinders Holland from joining the 

Coalition. 
France opens the Scheldt. 
Pitt's efforts for peace. 
The United Irishmen. 

1793 France declares War on England. 
Part of Whigs join Pitt. 
Englisli army lands in Flanders. 

1794 English driven from Toulon. 
English driven from Holland. 
Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act. 
Victory of Lord \in\\e,fuiie 21. 

1796 Battle'of Cape St. Vincent. 
Burke's "Letters on a Regicide 

Peace.''' 

1797 England alone in the War with 
1 France. 



CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS. 



377 



1797 Battle of Camperdown. 

1798 Irish revolt crushed at Vinegar Hill. 
Battle of the Nile. 

1799 Pitt revives the Coalition against 

France. 
Conquest of Mysore. 

1800 Surrender of Malta to English Fleet. 
Armed Neutrality of Northern Pow- 
ers. 

Act of Union with Ireland. 

1801 George the Third rejects Pitt's plan 

of Catholic Emancipation. 
Administration of Mr. Addington. 
Surrender of French army in Egypt. 
Battle of Copenhagen. 

1802 Peace of Amiens. 

Piiblicaiioii of '''Edinburgh Re- 
view.'''' 

1803 Bonaparte declares War. 
Battle of Assaye. 
Second Ministry of Pitt. 

1805 Battle of Trafalgar, Oct. 21. 
i8oi5 Death of Pitt, /^i«. 23. 

Ministry of Lord Grenville. 

Death of Fox. 

1807 Orders in Council. 
Abolition of Slave-trade. 
Ministry of Duke of Portland. 
Seizure of Danish fleet. 

1808 ^meiica passes Non-Intercourse 

Act. 
Battle of Vimeira and Convention of 

Cintra. 
l8og Battle of Corunna,/^z;/. 16. 

Wellesley diives Soult from Oporto. 
Battle of Talavera,/«/j/ 27. 
Expedition against Walcheren. 
Ministry of Spencer Perceval. 
Revival of Parliamentary Reform. 

1810 Battle of Busaco. 
Lines of Torres Vedras. 

181 1 Prince of Wales becomes Regent. 
Battle of Fuentes de Onore, Miy 5. 
Wellington repulsed from Badajoz 

and Almeida. 
Luddite Riots. 

1812 Assassination of Spencer Perceval. 
Ministry of Lord Liverpool. 

Storm of Ciudad Rodrigo and Bada- 
joz. 

America declares War against Eng- 
land. 

Battle of Salamanca, /?//)' 22. 

Wellington retreats from Burgos. 

Victories of American Frigates. 

1813 Battle of Vittoria, ///;«' 21. 
Battles of the Pyrenees. 
Wellington enters France, Oct. 
Americans attack Canada. 

1814 Battle of Orthez. 

Battle of Toulouse, April 10. 



1814 Battle of Chippewa, /?^/j'. 
Raid upon Washington. 

British repulsed at Plattsburgh and 
New Orleans. 

1815 Battle of Quatre Bras,y?<7«^ 16. 
Battle of Waterloo, //<«^ 18. 
Treaty of Vienna. 

1819 Manchester Massacre. 

1820 Cato Street Conspiracy. 
George the Fourth, died 1S30. 
Bill for tlie Queen's Divorce. 

1822 Canning Foreign Minister. 

1823 INIr. Huskisson jonis the Ministry. 

1826 Expedition lo Portugal. 
Recognition of South American 

States. 

1827 Ministry of Mr. Canning. 
Ministry of Lord Goderich. 
Battle of Navarino. 

1828 Ministry of the Duke of WelHngton. 

1829 Cathe)lic Emancipation Bill 

1830 William the Fourth, died 1S37. 
Ministry of Lord (Irey. 

Opening 0/ Liverpool a7id ISIanches- 
ter Railroad. 

1 831 Reform Agitation. 

1832 Parliamentary Reform Bill passed. 

J2i7ie 7. 

1833 Suppression of Colonial Slavery. 
East India trade thrown open. 

1834 Ministry of Lord Melbourne. 
New Poor Law. 

Svstem of National Education begun. 
Ministry of Sir Robert Peel. 

1835 Ministry of Lord Melbourne re- 

placed. 
Municipal Coiporation Act. 

1836 General Registration Act. 
Civil Marriage Act. 

1837 Victoria. 

1839 Committee of Privy Council for Ed- 

ucation instituted. 
Demands for a PeojiL's Charter. 
Formation of Anti-Corn- Law League. 
Revolt in Canada. 
War with China. 
Occupation of Cabul. 

1840 Quadrujih Alliance with France, Por- 

tugal, and Spain. 
Bombardment of Acre. 

1841 Ministry of Sir Robert Peel. 
Income Tax revived. 
Peace with Cliina. 

Massacre of English army in Af- 
ghanistan. 

1842 Victories of Pollock in Afghanistan. 

1845 Battles of Moodkee and Ferozeshah. 

1846 Battle of Sobraon. 
Annexation of Scinde. 
Rei^eal of the Corn-Laws. 

1847 Ministry of Lord John Russell. 



378 



YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 



1848 Suppression of the Chartists and 
Irish rebels. 
Victory of Goojerat. 
Annexation of the Punjaub. 

1852 Ministry of Lord Derby. 

1853 Ministry of Lord Aberdeen. 

1854 Alhance with France against Russia. 
Siege of Sebastopol. 

Battle of Inkermann, Nov. 5. 

1855 Ministry of Lord Palmerston. 
Capture of Sebattopol. 

1856 Peace of Paris with Russia. 

1857 Sepoy Mutiny in Bengal. 

1858 Sovereignty of India transferred to 

the Crown. 
Volunteer movement. 
Second Ministry of Lord Derby. 

1859 Second Ministry of Lord Palmerston. 

1865 Ministry of Lord Russell. 

1866 Third Ministry of Lord Derby. 

1867 Parliamentary Reform Bill. 
Ministry of Mr. Disraeli. 



1868 Ministry of Mr. Gladstone. 
Abolition of compulsory Church 

Rates. 

1869 Disestablishment of the Episcopal 

Church in Ireland. 

1870 Irish Land Bill. 
Education Bill. 

1871 Abolition of Religious Tests in Uni- 

versities. 
Army Bill. 
Ballot Bill. 
1874 Second Ministry of Mr. Disraeli. 

1877 The Russo-Turkish War. 

1878 Treaty of Berlin. 

1879 War with Afghanistan. 

1880 Second Ministry of Mr. Gladstone. 

1881 Irish Land Act. 

1882 Bombardment of Alexandria. 

1884 War in the Soudan. 

1885 Ministry of the l.Iarquis of Salisbury, 
Third Parliamentary Refonii Bill. 
General Election. 

1886 Third Ministry of Mr. Gladstone. 
Home Rule bill introduced. 



SOVEREIGNS OF ENGLAND. 



BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 



Beginning 
of Reigu. 



SAXONS. 



^Egbert . 827 

Ethelwolf . 836 

Ethelbald 857 

Ethelbert 860 

Ethelred I . 866 

"^ Alfred 871 

Edward the Elder .... 901 

Ethelstan 925 

Edmund 1 941 

Edred 946 

Edwy 955 

Edgar 959 



Edward IT. . . 
Ethelred II. . . 
Edmund Iionside 



Beg'nnb/g 
of Re.gu. 

• • 975 
■ • 979 
. - 1016 



DANES. 

Swend 1014 

Canute 1017 

Harold 1 1035 

Hardicanute 1040 

SAXONS. 

Edward III. (the Confessor), 1042 

Harold II. 1066 



AFTER THE 

NORMANS. 

William 1 1066 

William II 1087 

Henry I iioo 

Stephen 1 135 

PLANTAGENETS. 

^ Henry II 1154 

Richard 1 1189 

"John IT99 

Henry III 1216 

'^Edward 1 1272 

^Edward II '^y^l 

Edward III 1327 

■ Richard II 1377 

HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

Henry IV 1399 

Henry V 1413 

Henry VI 1422 



HOUSE OF YORK, 

Edward IV 1461 

Edward V. ...... 1483 

Richard HI 1483 



CONQUEST. 

HOUSE OF TUDOR. 

Henry VII 

Henry VIII 

Edward VI 

Maiy I 

Elizabeth 



HOUSE OF .stua: 

James I 

Charles I 



14^5 
1509 

1547 
1553 
1558 

1603 
.64 



Oliver Cromwell, Prctsctor, 1653 
Richard Cromwell, rrotecto;', 1658 

HOUSE OF STUART (continued). 

Charles II 1660 

James II . 16S5 

William III. and M?a-y II. . 16S9 
Anne . 1702 

HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

George 1 17 14 

George II 1727 

George III 1760 

George IV 1S20 

William IV 1830 

Victoria 1837 



379 



FIRST LORDS OF THE TREASURY AND 
PRIME MINISTERS OF ENGLAND. 



Appointed. 

Robert Walpole Oct. lo, 

James Stanhope April lo, 

Earl of Sunderland Mar. 16, 

Sir Robert Walpole April 20, 

Earl of Wilmington Feb. 11, 

Henry Pelham July 26, 

Duke of Newcastle April 21, 

Earl of Bute May 29, 

George Grenville April 16, 

Marquis of Rockingham July 12, 

Duke of Grafton Aug, 2, 

Lord North Jan. 28, 

Marquis of Rockingham Mar. 30, 

Earl of Shelburne July 3, 

Duke of Portland April 5, 

William Pitt Dec. 27, 

Henry Addington Mar. 7, 

William Pitt May 12, 

Lord Grenville Jan. 8, 

Duke of Portland Mar. 13, 

Spencer Perceval June 23, 

Earl of Liverpool June 8, 

George Canning April 11, 

Viscount Goderich Aug. 10, 

Duke of Wellington Jar.. 11, 

Earl Grey Nov. 12, 

Viscount Melbourne July 14, 

Sir Robert Peel Dec. 10, 

Viscount Melbourne April 18, 

Sir Robert Peel Sept. i. 

Lord John Russell July 3, 

Earl of Derby Feb. 27, 

Earl of Aberdeen Dec. 28, 

Viscount Palmerston Feb. 8, 

Earl of Derby Feb. 26, 

Viscount Palmerston lune 18, 

Earl Russell Nov. 6, 

Earl of Derby July 6, 

Benjamin Disraeli . Feb. 27, 

William Evvart Gladstone Dec. 9, 

Benjamin r)isRAELi (Earl of Beaconsfield) . . Feb. 21, 

William Evvart Gladstone April 28, 

Marquis of Salisbury June 23, 

William Ewart Gladstone Jan. — y 

380 



INDEX. 



Aberdeen, earl of, 357. 

Abyssinia, 362. 

Addington, Henry, 320. 

Addison, Joseph, 333. 

Afghanistan, 353, 365. 

Agincourt, battle of, 160. 

Agricola, 7. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 299. 

Akenside, Mark, 334. 

Alabama, the, 360. 

Albert, prince, 353. 

Albuera, battle of, 324. 

Aldermen, 34. 

Alfred the great, 21. 

Alma, battle of, 357. 

Althorp, lord, 348. 

American civil war, 360; colonies, 701 

309; revolution, 310. 
Amiens, treaty of, 320. 
Angles, the, 9. 
Anglo-Saxon language, 24. 
Anjou, Margaret of, 165. 
Anne, queen, 267, 2S3, 284-290. 
Anselm, 73. 
Anson, lord, 301. 
Anti-Corn Law League, 353. 
Arabi Pasha, 365. 
Arbitration, the Geneva, 361, 364. 
Arbuthnot, John, 334. 
Arc, Joan of, 163. 
Architecture, 269, 336. 
Argyll, duke of, 293. 
Arkwright, Richard, 337. 
Armada, the Livincible, 218. 
Army purchase, 363. 
Arragon, Katherine of, 184, 186. 
Arthur, prince, 102. 
Arts, progress of the, 225, 268, 335. 
Assizes, 92. 



Atterbury, Francis, 334. 
Augustine, saint, 16. 
Austen, Jane, 334. 
Austerlitz, battle of, 321. 
Authors, early, 142. 



B. 



Babington, conspiracy of, 213. 
Bacon, lord, 217, 232. 
Bacon, Roger, 119. 
Balaklava, battle of, 357. 
Balliol, John, 124, 127. 
Ballot, the, 364. 
Banks, Sir Joseph, 337. 
Bannockburn, battle of, 130, 
Barons, revolt of the, 105. 
Barry, 335. 

Beaconsfield, earl of, 358, 361. 
Beaton, cardinal, 199. 
Beaufort, cardinal, 164. 
Beaumont, PVancis, 269. 
Becket, Thomas k, 85. 
Bedford, John, duke of, 162. 
Bench, the king's, 80. 
Bentham, Jeremy, 338, 342. 
Berlin, treaty of, 365. 
Bible, translations of, 146, 192. 
Bill of Rights, 274. 
Bishops, trial of the, 265. 
Blake, admiral, 251. 
Blenheim, battle of, 287. 
Bloody circuit, the, 264. 
Boadicea, 6. 
Board of Control, 325. 
Boleyn, Anne, 188. 
Bonaparte, Joseph, 323. 
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 319, 330. 
Bonner, bishop, 203. 
Boroughs, rotten, 347. 



381 



382 



YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 



Bosworth, battle of, 174. 
Bothwell, earl of, 212. 
Boyne, battle of the, 278. 
Braddock, general, 302. 
Bretigny, treaty of, 139, 
Bright, John, 354, 363. 
Britain, ancient, i. 
Britons, the, i. 
Brittany, invasion of, 135. 
Brougham, lord, 334, 348. 
Bruce, Robert, 124, 127, 134. 
Buckingham, duke of, 231, 236. 
Bunker Hill, battle of, 310. 
Bunyan, John, 255. 
Burdett, Sir Francis, 342. 
Burgoyne, general, 310. 
Burke^ Edmund, 311. 3i5> 357« 
Burleigh, lord, 217, 220. 
Burnet, bishop, 269. 
Burney, Frances, 334. 
Burns, Robert, 334. 
Bute, earl of, 307. 
Butler, Samuel, 269, 
Byron, lord, 334, 346. 



Cabinet, the, 283, 291, 313. 

Cabot, John, 183, 223. 

Cabot, Sebastian, 183, 223. 

Cade, Jack, 168. 

Cadwalla, 14. 

Cjesar, Julius, i. 

Calais, seige of, 136. 

Caledonians, the, 7. 

Campbell, Thomas, 334. 

Canada, 301, 330. 

Canning, George, 344. 

Canute, 41. 

Caractacus, 6. 

Caricatures, 335. 

Caroline of Brunswick, 342. 

Carteret, lord, 297. 

Cartwright, Dr., 337. 

Castles, Norman, 63. 

Catholics, the, 197, 202,215, 229, 257, 264 

278, 290, 325, 343. 
Cato Street Conspiracy, 343- 
Cavaliers, the, 236. 
Caxton, William, 177. 
Cecil, Sir Robert, 217, 231. 
(Jhalmers, Thomas, 334. 
Chantrey, Francis, 336. 
Charities, 338. 
Charles I., 234-247. 
Charles II., 249, 254-262. 
Charter of Henrv I., 77 

85; of Edward II., 

106, 109. 
Chartists, the, 355. 



Chatham, earl of, 297, 301, 307. 
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 142. 
Childers, H. E., 363. 
Christ Church College, 190. 
Christianity in Britain, 8, 15, 16. 
Christ's Hospital, 225. 
Church, the English, 29, 33, 68, 73, 90, 
104, 114, 146, 159, 189, 197, 204, 208, 
229, 235, 238, 245, 255, 263, 275. 
Churls, 32. 

Civil Service, the, 363. 
Civil War, the English, 244. 
Clarence, duke of, 169. 
Clarendon, council of, 87. ' 

Clarendon, lord, 269. 
Claudius, 6. 
Clergy, the, 144. 
Cleves, Anne of, 194. 
Clive, Robert, 304, 324. 
Coaches, first used, 225. 
Cobden, Richard, 354. 
Coleridge, Samuel T., 334. 
Colonies, 223, 309. 

Columbus, 183, 223. 

Common people, condition of, 226, 271, 
-!4o. 

Commons, House of, 142, 273, 347, 361. 

Commonwealth, the, 248. 

Concord, battle of, 3 10. 

Conquest, the Norman, 57, 60. 

Constantine, 8. 

Constitution, settlement of the, 273. 

Copley, John Singleton, 335. 

Coram, 338. 

Cornwallis, lord, 311. 

Corunna, battle of, 324. 

Cotton thread, invented, 225. 

Councils, local, 115. 

Courts, law, 80, 87, 91. 

Cowper, William, 334. 

Crabbe, George, 334. 

Cranmer, archbishop, 192. 

Crecy, battle of. 136. 

Crefeld, battle of, 303. 

Croker, John Wilson, 334. 

Crompton, Samuel, 337. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 244, 248, 252. 

Cromwell, Richard, 252. 

Cromwell, Thomas, 191. 

Crusades, the, 74. 

Culloden, battle of, 300. 

Cumberland, duke of, 299. 

Cutlery, 226. 



D. 



of Henry II., 
28 ; the Great, 



Dalton, John, 336. 
Danes, the, 18, 38, 59. 
Darnley, lord, 212. 
Davy, Sir Humphrey, 336. 



INDEX. 



383 



Death, the Black, 137. 

Debt, the national, 315, 341. 

Declaration of Indulgence, 265 ; of Rights, 

274; of Independence, 310. 
DeFoe, Daniel, 334. 
DeQuincey, Thomas, 334. 
Derby, earl of, 357, 360. 
Derwentwater, earl of, 293. 
Discovery, eras of, 183, 224. 
Dispensing power, 264. 
Disraeli, "Benjamin (earl oi Beaconsfield), 

358, 361. 
Dissenters, the, 255, 259, 265, 275. 
Divine right, 232. 
Doomsday book, 67. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 216. 
Drayton, Michael, 224. 
Dress, ancient, 35. 
Druids, the, 3, 4. 
Dryden, John, 269. 
Dudley, Lord Guildford, 201, 
Dunstan, saint, 28. 
Dutch, war with the, 255. 



E. 



Earls, 32. 

East India Company, 304, 351, 360. 

Edgar the Peaceable, 30. 

Edgehill, battle of, 244. 

Edgeworth, Maria, 334. 

Edmund, 28. 

Edmund Ironside, 41. 

Edmund, saint, 21. 

Edred, 29. 

Education, 143, 363. 

Edward the Elder, 26. 

Edward, son of Edgar, 31. 

Edward the Confesssor, 48. 

Edward I., 1 19-129. 

Edward II., 129-131. 

Edward III., 133-140. 

Edward the Black Prince, 136. 

Edward IV., 167-171. 

Edward V., 172. 

Edward VI., 196-201. 

Edwin, 13. 

Effingham, Lord Howard of, 218. 

Ej;bert, 15, 18. 

E-ypt, 319, 363. 

El 'anor, queen, 120. 

Eliot, Sir John, 238. 

Elizabeth, queen, 2o'S-22i. 

Emancipation, Catholic, 343. 

Engineering, 336. 

Enghsh character, 61; under the Nor- 
mans, 64: language, 96; literature, 
224, 269; navy, 251, 303, 318. 

Erasmus, 224. 

Essex, earl of, 220. 



Ethelbert, 16. 
Ethelred, 20, 38. 
Ethelstan, 19, 27. 
Ethelwolf, 19. 
Eugene, prince, 287. 
Evelyn, John, 269. 
Excise, the, 297. 



Fair, the world's, 356. 

Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 245. 

Fawkes, Guy, conspiracy of, 230, 

Feudal System, the, 32, 63, 176. 

Fielding, Henry, 334. 

Fire, the great, 256. 

Fitzgerald, lord Edward, 327. 

Five members, the, 243. 

Flaxman, John, 336. 

Fletcher, John, 269. 

Food, ancient, 35. 

Foundling Hospital, 338. 

Fox, Charles James, 311, 315, 321, 328. 

Fox, Henry, 307. 

France, wars with, 70, 91, 102, 135, 171 

236, 280, 285, 318, 320. 
Franco-Austrian War, the, 360. 
Franco-German War, the, 364. 
Frederick, Elector Palatine, 231. 
French revolutions, 316, 346, 355. 
Frobisher, Martin, 216. 



Gainsborough, Thomas, 335. 

Gardening, 338. 

Gardiner, bishop, 202. 

Gaunt, John of, 140, 154, 156. 

Gay, John, 334. 

Geneva Arbitration, the, 361, 364. 

George I., 290-296. 

George II., 296-306. 

George III., 306-342. 

George IV., 316, 329, 342-346. 

Ghent, treaty of, 330. 

Gibbon, Edward, 334. 

Gibraltar, capture of, 287. 

Gillray, James, 336. 

Gladstone, William E., 358, 360, 366. 

Glencoe, massacre of, 282. 

Glendower, Owen, 157. 

Gloucester, duke of, 162, 164. 

Goderich, lord, 344. 

Godfrey, Sir Edmondsbury, 259. 

Godolphin, lord, 287. 

Godwin, earl, 43, 49. 

Godwin, William, 334. 

Goldsmith, Oliver, 334. 



384 



YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 



Gordon, general, 365. 
Gower, John, 142. 
Grafton, duke of, 308. 
Graham of Claverhouse, 281. 
Grand remonstrance, the, 242. 
Granville, earl, 363. 
Grattan, Henry, 326. 
Gray, Thomas, 334. 
Greene, Robert, 224. 
Greenwich observator\', 270. 
Grenville, George, 307: lord, 321. 
Grey, earl, 348 ; Lady Jane, 200-203. 
Guilds, trade, 98. 



H. 



Habeas Corpus, 259, 318 

Hadrian, 8. 

Hall, Robert, 334. 

Hampden, John, 240. 

Hampton Court, 187. 

Handel, 339. 

Hanover, 353. 

Hardicanute, 47. 

Hargreaves, 337. 

Harley, earl oJE Oxford, 28S, 293. 

Harold, 49. 

Harold Harefoot, 46. 

Hartington, marquis of, 363. 

Harvey, William, 269. 

Hasting, 23. 

Hastings, battle of, 56. 

Hastings, John, 124. 

Hastings, Warren, 324. 

Hawkins, Sir John, 216. 

Hazlitt, William, 334. 

Hengist, 10. 

Henrietta Maria, queen, 234. 

Henry I., 77-81. 

Henry II., 84-95. 

Henrv III., 112-119. 

Henr'v IV., 153-158. 

Henr^' V., 158-161. 

Henrv VI., 162-168. 

Henr'v VII., 173-183. 

Henry VIII., 183-196. 

Heptarchy, the, 13. 

Herrick, Robert, 269. 

Herschel, William, 336. 

Hervey, lord, 334. 

Hindostan, 224, 304. 

Hogarth, William, 335. 

Horsa, 10. 

Horse-racing, 271. 

Household suffrage, 362. 

Howard, John, 338. 

Howard, Katherine, 195. 

Hudson Bay Company, 271. 

Hume, David, 334. 



Hunt, Leigh, 334. 
Huskisson, Thomas, 345. 



I. 



Independence, declaration of, 310. 

India, 304, 324, 359. 

Indulgence, declaration of, 265. 

Industries, 270. 

Invention, 336. 

Ireland, 93, 104, 152, 215, 221, 238, 242, 

248, 277, 289, 325, 354, 363, 366. 
Ironsides, Cromwell's, 244. 
Irving, Edward, 334. 
Isabella, queen, 130. 



Jackson, general, 330. 
Jacobite rebellion, the first, 293 ; the sec- 
ond, 299. 
Jamaica, 251. 
James I., 214, 228-233. 
James II., 257, 262-267,277, 284. 
Jeffreys, judge, 263. 
Jena, battle of, 322. 
Jenner, Edward, 336. 
Jews, the, 100, 129, 251, 355. 
Joan of Arc, 163. 
John, 102-111. 

John of Gaunt, 140, 154, 156. 
John, King of France, 138. 
Johnson, Samuel, 334. 
Jones, Inigo, 269. 
Jutes, the, 9. 



K. 



Katherine of Arragon, : 
Katherine of France, 173. 
Kay, John, 337. 
Keats, John, 334. 
Kent, duke of, 352. 
Killiekrankie, battle of, 281. 
Kneller, Sir Godfrey, 268. 
Knights of the shire, 115. 
Knox, John, 211. 



84. 



L. 



Lafayette, 311. 
Lamb, Charles, 334. 
Lancaster, house of, 155. 
Lanfranc, 68. 



INDEX. 



38s 



Langton, Stephen, 104, 106, 112. 

Language, the EngUsh, 96. 

Latimer, bishop, 203, 205. 

Laud, archbishop, 238, 242. 

Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 335. 

League, anti-corn law, 353. 

Leicester, earl of, 217, 221. 

Lely, Sir Peter, 268. 

Lexington, battle of, 310. 

Libraries, circulating, 335. 

Lighthouses, 270. 

Lille, taking of, 287. 

Limerick, fall of, 278. 

Literature, English, 142, 224, 269, 333. 

Lithography, .336. 

Liverpool, earl of, 329, 344. 

Llewellyn, 122. 

Local councils, 115. 

Locke, John, 333. 

Lollards, the, 151, 156, 190. 

London, government of, 98. 

Londonderry, siege of, 278. 

Lords, House of, 142, 248, 273, 347, 349. 

Louis XIV., of France, 257, 277. 

Louis XVI IL, of France, 331. 

Lowe, Robert, 363. 

Luther, Martin, 191. 



M. 



Magazines, 334. 

Malplaquet, battle of, 287. 

Mandeville, Sir John, 142. 

IVTar, earl of, 293. 

Margaret of Anjou, 165. 

Maria Theresa, empress, 299. 

Marlborough, duke of, 267, 285, 287. 

Marlowe, Christopher, 224. 

Marston Moor, battle of, 245. 

Mary L, 202-206. 

Mary IL, 266, 273-282. 

Mary, queen of Scots, 198, 200, 211. 

Matthews, 334. 

Maud, empress, 81, 84. 

Maynooth college, 355. 

Melbourne, lord, 352. 

Mill, James, 334. 

Milton, John, 269. 

Minorca, taking of, 287. 

Monk, George, 253. 

Monmouth, duke of, 263. 

Montfort, Simon de, 115. 

Montrose, marquis of, 249. 

Moore, Thomas, 334. 

More, Hannah, 334. 

More, Sir Thomas, 192, 224. 

Mortimer, Roger de, 131. 

Moscow, retreat from, 331. 

Music, 339. 

Mutiny, the Indian, 359. 



N. 



Napier, Sir Robert, 362. 

Napoleon I., 319, 330, 341. 

Napoleon III., 356, 364. 

Naseby, battle of, 245. 

Navy, the English, 251, 303, 318. 

Nelson, lord, 318, 321. 

Nero, 6. 

Newcastle, duke of, 297, 301, 307. 

New Orleans, battle of, 330. 

Newspapers, 225, 334, 351. 

Newton, Sir Isaac, 269. 

Nile, battle of the, 319. 

Non-intercourse act, 330. 

Non-jurors, 276. 

Norman, conquest, 57 ; government, 62 ; 
castles, 63. 

Normandy, French conquest of, 103 ; Ro- 
bert of, 75 ; William of, 40, 50, 54, 
66-70. 

North, lord, 308, 311. 



O. 



Gates, Titus, 258. 

Occupations, 270. 

O'Connell, Daniel, 344, 355. 

Offa, 14. 

Oldcastle, Sir John, 159. 

O'Neil, Hugh, 221. 

Opera, 339. 

Orders in council, 329. 

Orleans, siege of, 163. 

Oudenarde, battle of, 287. 



Pale, the English, 94. 

Paley, William, 334. 

Palmerston, lord, 348, 357, 360. 

Paris, treaties of, 303, 357. 

Parliament, 34, 114, 117, 128, 141, 178, 

X90, 229, 236, 240, 245, 249, 252, 25s, 

268, 273, 289, 294. 
Parr, Katherine, 195. 
Paullinus, 16. 
Peel, Sir Robert, 352. 
Pelham, Henry, 297. 
Penal laws, 278, 290, 325. 
Penda, 14. 

Peninsula war, the, 324. 
Pepys, Samuel, 269. 
Perceval, Spencer, 328. 
Percy, Thomas, 334. 
Peter the Hermit, 75. 
Petition of Right, 237. 



386 



YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 



Philip II. of Spain, 203, 210, 216. 

Philip of Anjou, 287. 

Philippa, queen, 137. 

Pins tirst used, 225. 

Pitt, William (earl of Chatham), 297, 301, 

307- 
Pitt, William, the younger, 314, 320, 327, 

343- 
Plague, the great, 256. 
Plantagenets, the, 84. 
Plassey, battle of, 304. 
Plays, sacred, 97. 
Poets, Elizabethan, 224, 
Poitiers, battle of, 138. 
Pole, cardinal, 204. 
Pope, Alexander, 333. 
Popish plot, the, 258. 
Population, 271. 
Portland, duke of, 321, 328. 
Prayer-book, the, 210. 
Prerogative, the royal, 234. 
Presb\-terians, the, 245. 
Pride's purge, 246. 
Printing, 177, 337. 
Prior, Matthew, 333. 
Protestant succession, the, 275. 
Puritans, the, 210, 229, 231, 235, 242, 245, 

255- 
Pym, John, 241. 



Q. 



Quebec, capture of, 302. 

R. 

Races, fusion of, 96. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 216, 225, 232. 

Ramillies, battle of, 287. 

Reaction, royalist, 248. 

Rebellion, the first Jacobite, 293 : the sec- 
ond Jacobite, 299. 

Reforms, 315, 345, 347, 35i. 361, 366. 

Remonstrance, the grand, 242. 

Representation, 98. 

Reviews, 335. 

Revivals, 337. 

Revolution, the great, 267, 273 ; the Amer- 
ican, 310; the French, 316, 346, 355. 

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 335. 

Ricardo, David, 334. 

Richard I., 100-102. 

Richard II., 148-154. 

Richard III., 172-174. 

Richardson, Samuel, 334. 

Ridhy, bishop, 203, 205. 

Right, petition of, 237. 

Rights, bill of, 274; declaration of, 274. 



Robert of Normandy, 75. 
Robertson, William, 334. 
Rochambeau, count, 311. 
Rockingham, marquis of, 307, 312, 
Rogers, Samuel, 334. 
Roniilly, Sir Samuel, 338. 
Rooke, Sir George, 287. 
Roundheads, the, 236. 
Roses, wars of the, 162-170. 
Royal Academy, the, 336. 
Royal Society, the, 269. 
Rugby school, founded, 226. 
Runnymede, meeting zf, 107. 
Russell, lord John, 348, 354, 357, 360. 
Russell, lord William, 262. 
Russia, war with, 356. 
Rye House plot, 261. 
Ryswick, peace of, 280. 



s. 

Sachaverell, Dr., 2S8. 

St. Albans, battle of, 166. 

St. James's palace, 225. 

St. John, Henry (viscount Bolingbroke), 

288, 293, 333. 
St. Paul's cathedral, 225, 256. 
Salamanca, battle of, 324. 
Salisbury, marquis of, 366. 
Saratoga, battle of, 310. 
Saxons, the, 9, 12. 
Schools, early, 96. 
Science, progress of, 269. 
Scotland, 44, 91, 123, 134, 198, 211, 240, 

246, 281, 2S9, 300. 
Scots, the, 8, 134, 157, 184, 198. 
Scots, Maiy, queen of, 200, 211. 
Scott, Sir Walter, 334. 
Scutage,_92. 
Sea bathing, 339. 
Sebastopol, taking of, 357, 
.Sedgemoor, battle of, 263, 
Sepoys, 359. 

Serfdom, decrease of, 144. 
Seven years' war, the, 299, 
Severus, 8. ' 

Seymour, Jane, 194. 
Shakespeare, WiUiam, 224. 
Sharpe, William, 336. 
Shelburne, earl of, 312. 
Shelley, Perey B., 334. 
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 334. 
Sheriffs, 34. 
Ship building, 270, 
Ship money, 239. 
Shire, knights of the, 115. 
Shires, 34. 

Sidney, Sir Philip, 217. 
Slavery, 328, 351. 
Smith Adam, 334. 



INDEX. 



387 



Smith, Sydney, 334. 

Smollett, 'J'obias, 334. 

Somerset, duke of, 193, 195. 

Sophia, the electress, 283, 290. 

Soudan, the, 365. 

South, 334. 

Southey, 334. 

Spain, wars with, 216, 296, 323. 

Spanish succession, the, 286. 

Spenser, Edmund, 224. 

Sports, English, 36, 99, 271, 339. 

Stamp act, the, 309. 

Star chamber, the, 181, 238, 241. 

Steele, Sir Richard, 333. 

Stephen, S2-84. 

Sterne, Laurence, 334. 

Stockings, silk, 225. 

Strafford, earl of, 238, 241. 

Strange, Sir Robert, 336. 

Strongbow, 94. 

Stuart, Charles Edward, 299. 

Stuart, Henry, 300. 

Stuart, James Edward, 290, 293. 

Stuart, house of, 228. 

Succession, the Protestant, 275; act of, 

283. 
Suffrage, household, 362. 
Sumptuary laws, 143. 
Sunday schools, 338. 
Superstitions, 36. 
Surrey, earl of, 224. 
Swend, 39. 
Swift, Jonathan, 333. 
Sydney, Algernon, 262. 



Talavera, battle of, 324. 

Taxation by consent, 128. 

Tea duty, t'..e, 309. 

Telescopes introduced, 225. 

Tewkesbury, battle of, 170. 

Thanes, 32. 

Theatres, 226, 271. 

Theobald, archbishop, 85. 

Thistlewood, Arthur, 343. 

Thomson, James, 334. 

Throgmorton, plot of, 213. 

Tobacco, introduced, 225. 

Toleration, act of, 275. 

Tone, Wolfe, 327. 

Tories, the, 259, 264, 282, 288, 290, 292, 

307, 312, 328, 349, 352, 354, 357, 360. 
lostig, 49. 

Towns, growth of, 34, 64, 97. 
Trade guilds, 98 ; unions, 363. 
Trafalgar, battle of, 321. 
'i'rial by jury, 92. 
Troyes, treaty of, i6i. 



Tudor, house of, 180. 
Turner, J. M. W. 335. 
Tyndale, William, 192, 224. 
Tyler, Wat, 148. 



u. 

Union, act of, with Scotland, 289; with 

Ireland, 327. 
United States, second war with, 329. 
Utrecht, treaty of, 288. 



V. 



Vasco da Gama, 183, 223. 
Victoria, queen, 352-366. 
Villeins, 33. 

Vinegar Hill, battle of, 326. 
Vittoria, battle of, 324. 
Volunteers, the Irish, 325. 
Vortigern, 9. 



w. 

Wales, 104, 121, 123. 

Wallace, William, 125. 

Walpole, Horace, 334. 

Walpole, Sir Robert, 293, 295. 

Walsingham, Sir Francis, 217. 

Walter, John, 337. 

War, the civil, 244 ; of the Spanish suc- 
cession, 286; the seven years', 299; 
the Napoleonic, 323 ; the peninsula, 
324; the Crimean, 356; the Chinese, 
359; the Franco-Austrian, 360; the 
American, 360; the Austro-Prussian, 
364 ; the Franco-Prussian, 364 ; the 
Russo-Turkish, 364. 

Warbeck, Perkin, 181. 

Warrants, general, 308. 

Warwick, Richard, earl of, 169. 

Warwick, John Dudley, earl of, 200. 

Washington, George, 302, 311. 

Water colors, 336. 

Watering places, 271. 

Waterloo, battle of, 331. 

Watt, James, 337. 

Wedgewood, Josiah, 336. 

Wellington, duke of, 323, 331, 344, 348, 

352- 
Welsh, the, 51, 121, 157. 
Wesley, Charles, 337. 
Wesley, John, 337. 
West, Benjamin, 335. 
West Indies, the, 251. 
Westmacott, 336. 



sss 



YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 



Westminster Abbev, 52, 113, 129; school, 

226. 
Whigs, the, 259, 282, 288, 290, 292, 307, 

312, 348, 352, 354, 357. 
Whitefield, 337. 
Whitehall, 187, 225. 
Wilberforce, William, 328. 
Wilkes, John, 30S. 
Wilkie, David, 335. 
William I., 40, 50, 54, 66-70 
William II., 70-76. 
William III., 266, 273-284. 
Wilson, John, 334. 
Witches, trial of, 37. 
Witenagemote, the, 34, 79, 98. 
Wolte, general, 302. 
Wolsey, cardinal, 184. 



Woodville, Elizabeth, 169. 
Worcester, battle of, 249. 
Wordsworth, 334. 
Work houses, 351. 
World's fair, 356. 
Wren, Sir Christopher, 269. 
Wyatt, revolt of, 203. 
Wycliffe, John, 144. 



York, Elizabeth of, 165. 
York, Richard of, 173. 
Yorktown, battle of, 511, 
Young, Edward, 334. 



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Lee and Shepard's Popular Handbooks. 

Price, each, in cloth, 50 cents, except when other price is given. 

Exercises for the Improvement of the Senses. For young chil- 
dren. By Horace Grant, author of" Arithmetic for Young Children." 
Edited by Willard Small. 

Hints on Language in Connection with Sight-Reading and Writing in 
Primary and Intermediate Schools. By S. Arthijr Bent, A.M., 
Superintendent of Public Schools, Clinton, Mass. 

The Hunter's Handbook. Containing lists of provisions and camp 
paraphernalia, and hints on the fire, cooking-utensils, etc., with approved 
receipts for camp cookery. By '.' An Old Hunter." 

Universal Phonography ; or, Shorthand by the " Allen Method." A 
self-instructor. By G. G. Allen. 

Hints and Helps for those who Write, Print, or Read. By B. Drew, 
proof-reader. « 

Pronouncing Handbook of Three Thousand Words often Mispro- 
nounced. By R. Soule and L. J. Campbell. 

Short Studies of American Authors. By Thomas Wentworth 

HlGGlNSON. 

The Stars and the Earth ; or. Thoughts upon Space, Time, and Eter- 
nity. With an mtroduction by Thomas Hill, D.D., LL.D. 

Handbook of the Earth. Natural Methods in Geography. By Louisa 
Parsons Hopkins, teacher of normal methods in the owam tree 
School, New Bedford. 

Natural-History Plays. Dialogues and Recitations for School Exhibi- 
tions. By Louisa P. Hopicins. 

The Telephone. An account of the phenomena of Electricity, ALignet- 
ism, and Sound, with directions for making a speakmg-telephone. By 
Professor A. E. Dolbear. 

Lessons on Manners. By Edith E. Wiggin. 

Water Analysis. A Handbook for Water-Drinkers. By G. L. Aus- 

• TIN, M.D. 

Handbook of Light Gymnastics. By Lucv B. Hunt, mstructor m 
gymnastics at Smith (female) College, Northampton, Mass. 

The Parlor Gardener. A Treatise on the House-Culture of Ornamental 
Plants By Cornelia J. Randolph. With illustrations. 

Whirlwinds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes. By William Morris 
Davis, instructor in Harvard College. Illustrated. 

Practical Boat-Sailing. By Douglas Fr.^zar. Classic size, $i.oo. 
With numerous diagrams and illustrations. 

Sold by all booksellers and newsdealers, and sent by mail, postpaid, 
on receipt of price. 

LEE AND SHEPARD, Publishers, Boston, Mass. 



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